Science Help - Learn by Concept

Concepts

• 1st Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

    • Daylight in Relation to Time of Year

      • Make observations at different times of the year

      • Relate the amount of daylight to the time of year

    • Pattern Prediction by the Sun, Moon, and Stars

      • Describe patterns using the sun, moon, and stars

      • Make observations of the sun, moon, and stars

  • Life Science

    • Patterns in Behavior of Parents and Offspring

      • Determine how parents and offspring behave to survive

      • Use resources to determine patterns in behavior

    • Plant and Animal Survival

      • Solve a human problem mimicking how animals survive

      • Solve a human problem mimicking how plants survive

    • Plants Similarities to Their Parents

      • Observe how animal offspring are similar to parents

      • Observe how plant offspring are similar to parents

  • Physical Science

    • Communication with Light and Sound

      • Design a device using light to communicate over a distance

      • Design a device using sound to communicate over a distance

    • Illumination of Objects in Darkness

      • Construct an evidence-based account

      • Observe objects in darkness when illuminated

    • Light and Visibility

      • Investigate the effect of a beam of light on different objects

      • Plan an investigation placing objects in a beam of light

    • Sound and Vibration

      • Investigate how sound makes materials vibrate

      • Investigate how vibrating material makes sound

      • Provide evidence relating sound and vibrations

• 2nd Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

    • Effects of Wind and Water on Landscapes

      • Compare ways to prevent wind/water from changing land shape

      • Compare ways to slow wind/water from changing land shape

    • Liquid and Solid States of Water

      • Explain how water on Earth can be solid or liquid

      • Identify where water is on Earth

    • Speed of Various Earth Events

      • Use sources to show that some Earth events occur quickly

      • Use sources to show that some Earth events occur slowly

    • The Changing Shape of Land and Water

      • Use a model to represent the shapes of land in an area

      • Use a model to represent the shapes of water in an area

  • Life Science

    • Animal Effects on Plant Pollination

      • Develop a model mimicking an animal dispersing seeds

      • Develop a model mimicking an animal pollinating plants

    • Diverse Habitats

      • Observe animals to compare diversity in various habitats

      • Observe plants to compare diversity in various habitats

    • Sunlight, Water, and Plant Growth

      • Investigate whether plants need sunlight and water to grow

      • Plan an investigation to see whether plants need sun and water

  • Physical Science

    • Changes Caused by Heating and Cooling

      • Argue changes caused by heating/cooling can be reversed

      • Argue changes caused by heating/cooling can't be reversed

      • Construct an argument using evidence

    • Classification of Materials

      • Classify materials by observable properties

      • Describe materials by observable properties

      • Investigate materials and observable properties

    • Creation of New Objects from Existing Objects

      • Construct an evidence-based account of an observation

      • Disassemble an object made of small pieces into a new object

    • Purposes of Materials

      • Analyze data from different materials

      • Analyze different materials to see if they are suited for a purpose

• 3rd Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

    • Climates Around the World

      • Describe climates in different regions of the world

      • Obtain and combine information about world climates

    • Reduction of Weather-Related Hazards

      • Make a claim about a solution to reduce impacts of weather

    • Representing Weather Conditions Through Data

      • Display data in graphs to describe weather during a season

      • Display data in tables to describe weather during a season

  • Life Science

    • Characteristics Among Species

      • Explain how trait variations give mating advantages

      • Explain how trait variations give reproduction advantages

      • Explain how trait variations give survival advantages

    • Diverse Life Cycles of Organisms

      • Describe unique organisms' life cycles and similarities

      • Develop models of organisms' life cycles

    • Effect of Habitat on Organism Survival

      • Argue that in a habitat some organisms cannot survive

      • Argue that in a habitat some organisms survive less well

      • Argue that in a habitat some organisms survive well

    • Environmental Changes that Cause Problems

      • Explain how animals may change due to environmental changes

      • Explain how plants may change due to environmental changes

    • Environmental Impact on Traits

      • Explain how traits are influenced by the environment

      • Use evidence to explain environmental impacts on traits

    • Fossils As Evidence

      • Use fossils as evidence of environments organisms lived in

      • Use fossils to provide evidence of organisms

    • Inheritance of Traits

      • Describe plant and animal inherited traits

      • Explain variations of traits in groups of organisms

    • Why Animals Form Groups

      • Argue that some animals form groups for survival

  • Physical Science

    • Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

      • Investigate how balanced forces affect an object's motion

      • Investigate how unbalanced forces affect an object's motion

    • Magnets to Solve Problems

      • Apply scientific knowledge about magnets to create a solution

      • Define a problem that be solved with magnets

    • Predictions of Future Motion Through Patterns

      • Make measurements of an object's motion

      • Make observations of an object's motion

      • Use collected data to show patterns in motion

    • Relationships with Electric and Magnetic Interactions

      • Question cause/effect relationships of electricity

      • Question cause/effect relationships of magnetism

• 4th Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

    • Formation and Uses of Energy

      • Describe how energy and fuel affects the environment

      • Describe how energy and fuel are created

    • Natural Earth Processes

      • Compare ways to reduce impacts of Earth processes

      • Generate ways to reduce impacts of Earth processes

    • Patterns and Fossils

      • Identify patterns of change in fossils and rock layers

      • Identify patterns of change in rock formations

      • Support an explanation for changes in landscapes

    • Patterns of Earth's Features

      • Analyze and interpret data from maps to describe patterns

      • Describe patterns of Earth's features

    • Weather and Erosion Rate

      • Measure effects of weathering on rate of erosion

      • Observe effects of weathering on rate of erosion

  • Life Science

    • How Animals Receive and Process Information

      • Describe how animals process information

      • Describe how animals receive information

      • Describe how animals respond to information

    • Plant and Animal Structures

      • Argue that animals have structures for survival

      • Argue that plants have structures for survival

  • Physical Science

    • Colliding Objects

      • Predict and observe changes in energy when objects collide

    • Convert Energy Forms

      • Design and test a device to convert energy between forms

    • Relation of Speed and Energy

      • Explain how an object's speed relates to its energy

    • Transfer of Energy

      • Observe how energy is transferred by electric currents

      • Observe how energy is transferred by heat

      • Observe how energy is transferred by light

      • Observe how energy is transferred by sound

• 5th Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

    • Differing Brightnesses of Stars

      • Argue and support that brightness in stars is due to distance

    • Earth's Distribution of Water

      • Describe the amounts of water on Earth

      • Describe the distribution of water on Earth

    • Earth's Resources and Environment

      • Use science ideas to protect Earth's environment

      • Use science ideas to protect Earth's resources

    • Interactions of the Four Spheres of Earth

      • Describe ways the four spheres of Earth interact

      • Model ways the four spheres of Earth interact

    • Patterns of Light and Stars

      • Reveal patterns in length and direction of shadows

      • Reveal patterns in length of day and night

      • Reveal patterns in seasonal appearance of stars

      • Reveal patterns of change in graphical displays

  • Life Science

    • Growth Needs of Plants

      • Argue that plants need air/water to grow

      • Support how plants need air and water to grow

    • Movement of Matter

      • Model the movement of matter among decomposers

      • Model the movement of matter among environments

      • Model the movement of matter among organisms

      • Model the movement of matter among plants

  • Physical Science

    • Conservation of Matter

      • Measure and graph evidence of matter being conserved

    • Creating Something New Via Mixture

      • Investigate whether mixing substances creates something new

    • Direction of Gravitational Force

      • Argue and give support that gravitational force is directed downward

    • Energy from Animals' Food

      • Model how energy in animals' food originated from the sun

      • Model the energy in animals' food

    • Identifying Material Properties

      • Identify materials based on properties with measurement

      • Identify materials based on properties with observation

    • Particle Size

      • Describe how matter is too small to see

      • Model that matter is too small to see

• 6th Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

  • Life Science

  • Physical Science

• 7th Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

  • Life Science

  • Physical Science

• 8th Grade Science

  • Earth and Space Science

  • Life Science

  • Physical Science

• Human Anatomy and Physiology

  • Gross Anatomy

    • Bones

      • Identifying Bones of the Lower Extremities

      • Identifying Bones of the Skull

      • Identifying Bones of the Trunk and Core

      • Identifying Bones of the Upper Extremities

    • Introductory Concepts

      • Defining Anatomical Orientations

      • Defining Anatomical Structural Terms

    • Joints

      • Identifying Joints of the Extremities

      • Identifying Joints of the Trunk, Core, and Head

      • Identifying Tendons and Ligaments

      • Identifying Types of Joints

    • Muscles

      • Identifying Muscles of the Lower Extremities

      • Identifying Muscles of the Trunk, Core, and Head

      • Identifying Muscles of the Upper Extremities

    • Organs

      • Identifying Digestive and Excretory Organs

      • Identifying Nerves and Blood Vessels

      • Identifying Other Anatomical Structures

      • Identifying Reproductive Organs

      • Identifying Respiratory and Endocrine Organs

      • Identifying Structures of the Brain

  • Injuries and Disorders

    • Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Circulatory System

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Heart

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Respiratory System

      • Help with Heart Injuries and Disorders

      • Help with Respiratory Injuries and Disorders

      • Help with Vascular and Lymphatic Injuries and Disorders

    • Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

      • Help with Endocrine Injuries and Disorders

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Endocrine System

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Reproductive System

      • Help with Reproductive Injuries and Disorders

    • Excretory and Digestive Systems

      • Help with Digestive Injuries and Disorders

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Digestive System

      • Help with Excretory Injuries and Disorders

    • Immune System

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Immune System

      • Help with Immune System Injuries and Disorders

    • Musculoskeletal System

      • Help with Bone Injuries and Disorders

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for Bones

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for Muscles, Ligaments, Tendons

      • Help with Muscle, Ligament, and Tendon Injuries and Disorders

    • Nervous System

      • Help with Evaluation Methods for the Nervous System

      • Help with Nervous System Injuries and Disorders

  • Systems Physiology

    • Circulatory and Respiratory Physiology

      • Circulatory and Lymphatic Physiology+11 topics

        • Circulatory Physiology+6 topics

          • Help with Arterial and Venous Physiology

          • Help with Capillary Physiology

          • Help with Circulatory Proteins and Hormones

          • Help with Heart Physiology

          • Help with Other Circulatory Physiology

          • Help with Pulmonary Circuit Physiology

        • Lymphatic Physiology+3 topics

          • Help with Fluid Homeostasis Physiology

          • Help with Other Lymphatic Physiology

          • Help with Primary Lymphoid Organ Physiology

      • Respiratory Physiology+6 topics

        • Help with Gas Exchange

        • Help with Inspiration and Expiration Physiology

        • Help with Lower Respiratory Physiology

        • Help with Other Respiratory Physiology

        • Help with Respiratory Proteins and Hormones

        • Help with Upper Respiratory Physiology

    • Endocrine and Reproductive Physiology

      • Endocrine Physiology+12 topics

        • Gland Physiology+6 topics

          • Help with Other Endocrine Physiology

          • Help with Ovary and Testes Physiology

          • Help with Pancreas, Liver, and Kidney Physiology

          • Help with Pituitary and Hypothalamus Physiology

          • Help with Thymus and Adrenal Physiology

          • Help with Thyroid and Parathyroid Physiology

        • Hormone Physiology+4 topics

          • Help with Hormone Effects

          • Help with Hormone Mechanisms

          • Help with Hormone Origins and Targets

          • Help with Hormone Types

      • Reproductive Physiology and Development+10 topics

        • Development+3 topics

          • Help with Developmental Stages and Events

          • Help with Fetal Circulation

          • Help with Gastrulation and Embryonic Structures

        • Reproductive Physiology+5 topics

          • Help with Female Physiology

          • Help with General Reproductive Physiology

          • Help with Male Physiology

          • Help with Reproductive Proteins and Hormones

          • Help with Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

    • Excretory and Digestive Physiology

      • Digestive Physiology+6 topics

        • Help with Digestive Enzymes and Hormones

        • Help with Large Intestine Physiology

        • Help with Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Physiology

        • Help with Pancreas and Liver Physiology

        • Help with Small Intestine Physiology

        • Help with Stomach Physiology

      • Excretory Physiology+5 topics

        • Help with Bladder Physiology

        • Help with Kidney Physiology

        • Help with Nephron Physiology

        • Help with Other Excretory Physiology

        • Help with RAAS Physiology

    • Immune Physiology

      • Adaptive Immunity+4 topics

        • Help with Antigens, Antibodies, and MHCs

        • Help with Cells of Adaptive Immunity

        • Help with Other Adaptive Immunity Physiology

        • Help with Proteins and Signals of Adaptive Immunity

      • Innate Immunity+3 topics

        • Help with Cells of Innate Immunity

        • Help with Other Innate Immunity Physiology

        • Help with Proteins and Signals of Innate Immunity

    • Musculoskeletal Physiology

      • Muscle Physiology+7 topics

        • Help with Cardiac Muscle Physiology

        • Help with General Muscle Structures

        • Help with Muscle Proteins and Signals

        • Help with Neuromuscular Junction Physiology

        • Help with Other Muscle Physiology

        • Help with Sarcomere Physiology

        • Help with Smooth Muscle Physiology

      • Skeletal and Articular Physiology+11 topics

        • Bone and Articular Physiology+7 topics

          • Help with Adult Osteogenesis

          • Help with Bone Proteins and Signals

          • Help with General Bone and Joint Structures

          • Help with Joint Physiology

          • Help with Other Bone and Articular Physiology

          • Help with Tendon and Ligament Physiology

          • Help with Types of Bone

        • Bone Marrow Physiology+2 topics

          • Help with Erythropoiesis

          • Help with Other Bone Marrow Physiology

    • Neural Physiology

      • Central Nervous System+3 topics

        • Help with Brain Physiology

        • Help with Proteins and Signals in the Central Nervous System

        • Help with Spinal Physiology

      • General Neuron Physiology+5 topics

        • Help with Action Potential Physiology

        • Help with Neural Proteins and Hormones

        • Help with Neuroglia Physiology

        • Help with Neuron Types

        • Help with Neurotransmitter and Receptor Physiology

      • Peripheral Nervous System+15 topics

        • Cranial Nerves+2 topics

          • Help with Other Cranial Nerve Physiology

          • Identifying Cranial Nerve Function

        • Parasympathetic Nervous System+2 topics

          • Help with Parasympathetic Postganglionic Physiology

          • Help with Parasympathetic Preganglionic Physiology

        • Sensory Organs+5 topics

          • Help with Auditory Physiology

          • Help with Gustatory and Olfactory Physiology

          • Help with Other Sensory Physiology

          • Help with Proprioception and Mechanoreceptors

          • Help with Visual Physiology

        • Sympathetic Nervous System+2 topics

          • Help with Sympathetic Postganglionic Physiology

          • Help with Sympathetic Preganglionic Physiology

• Biochemistry

  • Anabolic Pathways and Synthesis

    • Carbohydrate Synthesis

      • Carbohydrate Anabolism

      • Regulating Carbohydrate Synthesis

    • Lipid Synthesis

      • Lipid Synthesis Enzymes

      • Lipid Synthesis Reactants, Intermediates, and Products

      • Regulating Lipid Synthesis

    • Nucleic Acid Synthesis

      • DNA Replication

      • Regulating DNA Replication

      • Regulating Transcription

      • Transcription

    • Protein Synthesis

      • Regulating Protein Synthesis

      • Translation

  • Biochemical Signaling

    • Hormones and Neurotransmitters

      • Other Hormone Pathways

      • Peptide Hormone Pathways

      • Steroid Hormone Pathways

      • Synapse Biochemistry

    • Signal Transduction Pathways

      • G Protein Pathway

      • Integrins

      • Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

      • Second Messengers

      • Toll-Like Receptors

      • Tyrosine Kinase Pathway

  • Catabolic Pathways and Metabolism

    • Carbohydrate Metabolism

      • Alternative Pathways+15 topics

        • Fermentation and Anaerobic Respiration+2 topics

          • Ethanol Fermentation

          • Lactic Acid Fermentation

        • Gluconeogenesis+5 topics

          • Gluconeogenesis Energetics

          • Gluconeogenesis Enzymes

          • Gluconeogenesis Regulation

          • Other Gluconeogenesis Concepts

          • Reactants and Products of Gluconeogenesis

        • Glycogenolysis+5 topics

          • Glycogenolysis Energetics

          • Glycogenolysis Enzymes

          • Glycogenolysis Regulation

          • Other Glycogenolysis Concepts

          • Reactants and Products of Glycogenolysis

      • Citric Acid Cycle+6 topics

        • Citric Acid Cycle Carbohydrate Intermediates

        • Citric Acid Cycle Energetics

        • Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes

        • Citric Acid Cycle Regulation

        • Other Citric Acid Cycle Concepts

        • Reactants and Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

      • Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation+7 topics

        • ATP Synthase

        • Electron Transport Chain Energetics

        • Electron Transport Chain Proteins and Complexes

        • NADH and FADH2

        • Other Electron Transport Chain Concepts

        • Other Oxidatative Phosphorylation Concepts

        • Oxidative Phosphorylation Energetics

      • Glycolysis+6 topics

        • Glycolysis Carbohydrate Intermediates

        • Glycolysis Energetics

        • Glycolysis Enzymes

        • Glycolysis Regulation

        • Other Glycolysis Concepts

        • Reactants and Products of Glycolysis

      • Photosynthesis+6 topics

        • Calvin Cycle+2 topics

          • Calvin Cycle Carbohydrate Intermediates

          • Other Calvin Cycle Concepts

        • Light Reactions+2 topics

          • Light Reaction Energetics

          • Other Light Reaction Concepts

    • Lipid Catabolism

      • Lipid Catabolism Energetics

      • Lipid Catabolism Enzymes

      • Lipid Catabolism Intermediates

      • Lipid Catabolism Regulation

      • Other Lipid Catabolism Concepts

      • Reactants and Products of Lipid Catabolism

    • Protein Catabolism

      • Other Protein Catabolism Concepts

      • Protein Catabolism Enzymes

      • Protein Catabolism Intermediates

      • Protein Catabolism Regulation

      • Reactants and Products of Protein Catabolism

  • Enzyme Kinetics and Inhibition

    • Enzyme Kinetics and Models

      • Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics

      • Michaelis-Menten Equation

      • Michaelis-Menten Graphs

      • Other Kinetics Principles

      • Rate-Limiting Step

      • Vmax and Km

    • Types of Inhibition

      • Competitive Inhibition

      • Identifying Type of Inhibition

      • Mixed Inhibition

      • Noncompetitive Inhibition

      • Uncompetitive Inhibition

  • Fundamental Macromolecules and Concepts

    • Homeostasis and the Biological Environment

      • Biological Energetics

      • Essential Properties of Carbon

      • Essential Properties of Water

      • Negative Feedback

      • Other Homeostatic Conditions

      • pH Regulation

      • Thermodynamic Regulation

    • Macromolecule Fundamentals

      • Amino Acids and Proteins

      • Lipids

      • Monosaccharides and Carbohydrates

      • Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

    • Molecular Bonds and Forces

      • Covalent Bonds

      • Hydrogen Bonds

      • Hydrophobic Interactions

      • Other Intermolecular Forces

  • Identifying Biochemical Molecules

    • Identification by Function

      • Identifying Specific Carbohydrate Functions

      • Identifying Specific Lipid Functions

      • Identifying Specific Nucleic Acid Functions

      • Identifying Specific Protein Functions

    • Identification by Structure

      • Identifying Specific Carbohydrate Structures

      • Identifying Specific Lipid Structures

      • Identifying Specific Nucleic Acid Structures

      • Identifying Specific Protein Structures

    • Identifying Monomers and Dimers

      • Identifying Amino Acids

      • Identifying Disaccharides

      • Identifying Monosaccharides

      • Identifying Nitrogenous Bases and Derivatives

  • Macromolecule Structures and Functions

    • Carbohydrate Structures and Functions

      • Aldoses and Ketoses

      • Epimers, Chirality, and the Anomeric Carbon

      • Glycosidic Linkages

      • Structural Carbohydrates

    • Lipid Structures and Functions

      • Lipid Classifications+6 topics

        • Fatty Acids

        • Glycerolipids and Triglycerides

        • Other Lipid Classifications

        • Phospholipids

        • Sphingolipids

        • Sterols and Steroids

    • Nucleic Acid Structures and Functions

      • Nucleic Acid Degradation+2 topics

        • DNases

        • Regulating Nucleic Acid Degradation

      • Nucleic Acid Structures+5 topics

        • DNA and RNA

        • Modifications and Epigenetics

        • Nitrogenous Bases

        • Nucleic Acid Derivatives

        • Sugar-Phosphate Groups and Phosphodiester Bonds

    • Protein Structure and Functions

      • Protein Degradation+3 topics

        • Protein Hydrolysis

        • Regulating Protein Degradation

        • Ubiquitination Pathway

      • Protein Folding+5 topics

        • Primary Structure

        • Quaternary Structure

        • Regulation and Chaperonins

        • Secondary Structure

        • Tertiary Structure

      • Protein Functions+7 topics

        • Hydrolases

        • Isomerases

        • Ligases

        • Other Protein Functions

        • Structural Proteins

        • Transferases and Kinases

        • Transport Proteins

      • Protein Structure+3 topics

        • Active Site

        • Globular and Fibrous Proteins

        • Peptide Bonds

• High School Biology

  • Cell Biology

    • Cell Division

      • Meiosis+4 topics

        • Understanding Crossing Over

        • Understanding Oogenesis

        • Understanding Spermatogenesis

        • Understanding Stages of Meiosis

      • Mitosis+2 topics

        • Understanding Stages of Mitosis

        • Understanding Structures of Mitosis

      • The Cell Cycle+2 topics

        • Understanding Cell Cycle Regulation

        • Understanding Stages of the Cell Cycle

    • Cell Functions

      • Cell Respiration+3 topics

        • Understanding Glycolysis

        • Understanding the Citric Acid Cycle

        • Understanding the Electron Transport Chain

      • Photosynthesis+2 topics

        • Understanding Light Reactions

        • Understanding the Calvin Cycle

      • Transport and Signaling+4 topics

        • Understanding Cytoplasmic Proteins

        • Understanding Endocytosis and Exocytosis

        • Understanding Receptors and Ligands

        • Understanding Second Messenger Systems

    • Cell Structures and Organelles

      • Cellular Differences+3 topics

        • Understanding Plant Cell Differences

        • Understanding Prokaryotic Cell Differences

        • Understanding Specialized Cell Structures

      • Common Cell Structures+6 topics

        • Understanding Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

        • Understanding Other Cell Structures

        • Understanding Ribosomes

        • Understanding the Cell Membrane and Cell Wall

        • Understanding the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Body

        • Understanding the Nucleus and Nucleolus

  • DNA, RNA, and Proteins

    • DNA

      • DNA Replication+3 topics

        • Understanding Replication Processes

        • Understanding Replication Proteins

        • Understanding Replication Regulation

      • DNA Structure+4 topics

        • Understanding Chromosomes and Genes

        • Understanding Nucleotides

        • Understanding the DNA Backbone

        • Understanding the Double Helix

    • Proteins

      • Protein Function+3 topics

        • Understanding Enzymes

        • Understanding Inhibitors

        • Understanding Specific Protein Functions

      • Protein Structure+3 topics

        • Understanding Active Sites

        • Understanding Protein Classifications

        • Understanding Protein Folding

      • Translation+1 topic

        • Understanding Translation Processes

    • RNA

      • RNA Structure+2 topics

        • Understanding Differences with DNA

        • Understanding RNA Backbone

      • Transcription+3 topics

        • Understanding Transcription Processes

        • Understanding Transcription Proteins

        • Understanding Transcription Regulation

  • Ecology

    • Chemical Cycles

      • Understanding the Carbon Cycle

      • Understanding the Nitrogen Cycle

      • Understanding the Water Cycle

    • Food Pyramids and Food Webs

      • Identifying Levels

      • Understanding Energy Flow

  • Genetics and Evolution

    • Evolutionary Principles

      • Identify evidence for evolution

      • Understanding Biological Fitness

      • Understanding Natural Selection

      • Understanding Other Evolution Principles

      • Understanding Phylogenetics

      • Understanding Speciation

    • Genetics Principles

      • Genes and DNA+3 topics

        • Understanding Gene Coding

        • Understanding Gene Regulation

        • Understanding Prokaryotic Genes

      • Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium+2 topics

        • Understanding Hardy-Weinberg Calculations

        • Understanding Hardy-Weinberg Conditions

      • Inheritance Patterns+4 topics

        • Understanding Autosomal/Sex-Linked

        • Understanding Chromosomes

        • Understanding Codominance and Incomplete Dominance

        • Understanding Dominant/Recessive

      • Mutation+2 topics

        • Understanding Mutation and Evolution

        • Understanding Types of Mutation

  • Introductory Topics

    • Attributes of Life

      • Understanding Properties of Carbon

      • Understanding Properties of Water

      • Understanding Requirements for Life and Cell Theory

    • Feedback and Homeostasis

      • Understanding Biological Equilibrium

      • Understanding Negative Feedback

      • Understanding Positive Feedback

    • Macromolecules

      • Understanding Lipids and Carbohydrates

      • Understanding Proteins and Nucleic Acids

  • Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems

    • Connective Tissue

      • Understanding Properties of Connective Tissue

      • Understanding Types of Connective Tissue

    • Epithelium and Endothelium

      • Understanding Endothelium

      • Understanding Properties of Epithelium

      • Understanding Types of Epithelial Cells

    • Muscle Tissue

      • Understanding Properties of Muscle Tissue

      • Understanding Types of Muscle Tissue

    • Nervous Tissue

      • Understanding Properties of Nervous Tissue

      • Understanding Types of Nervous Tissue

    • Organs and Organ Systems

      • Circulatory System+3 topics

        • Understanding Circulatory Function

        • Understanding Circulatory Vessels

        • Understanding the Heart

      • Digestive System+3 topics

        • Understanding Digestive Functions

        • Understanding Digestive Organs

        • Understanding Hormones and Digestion

      • Endocrine System+4 topics

        • Understanding Glands

        • Understanding Negative Feedback Loops

        • Understanding Specific Hormones

        • Understanding Types of Hormones

      • Excretory System+4 topics

        • Understanding Excretory Organs

        • Understanding Hormones and the Excretory System

        • Understanding Nephron Function

        • Understanding Nephron Structure

      • Immune System+3 topics

        • Understanding Adaptive Immunity

        • Understanding Cells of the Immune System

        • Understanding Innate Immunity

      • Musculoskeletal System+3 topics

        • Understanding Bones

        • Understanding Muscles

        • Understanding Sliding Filament Theory

      • Nervous System+4 topics

        • Understanding Action Potentials

        • Understanding Divisions of the Nervous System

        • Understanding Neurotransmitters

        • Understanding Structures of the Nervous System

      • Reproductive System+2 topics

        • Understanding Reproductive Functions

        • Understanding Reproductive Organs

      • Respiratory System+2 topics

        • Understanding Respiratory Functions

        • Understanding Respiratory Organs

• College Chemistry

  • Introductory Topics

    • Atoms and Elements

      • Electron Configurations

      • Isotopes

      • Periodic Trends

      • Quantum Numbers

      • Radioactive Decay

    • Molecules and Compounds

      • Covalent Bonds

      • Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces

      • Ionic Bonds

      • Molecular Geometries and VSEPR Theory

      • Nomenclature and Functional Groups

      • Orbital Hybridization

      • Polarity and Dipoles

      • Properties of Water

  • Laboratory Techniques and Analysis

    • Chromatography

    • Laboratory Equipment

    • Other Laboratory Methods

    • Yield and Error

  • Reactions

    • Acid-Base Reactions

      • Buffers

      • Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

      • Lewis, Brønsted-Lowry, and Arrhenius Definitions

      • pH

      • Strong and Weak Acids/Bases

      • Titrations

    • Equilibrium

      • Chemical Equilibrium, Equilibrium Constant, and Reaction Quotient

      • Common Ion Effect

      • Le Chatelier's Principle

      • Solubility Product Constant

    • General Topics

      • Balancing Chemical Equations

      • Empirical and Molecular Formulas

      • Identifying Reaction Types

      • Stoichiometric Calculations and Dimensional Analysis

    • Redox Reactions

      • Assigning Oxidation States

      • Balancing Redox Reactions

      • Combustion Reactions

      • Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells

      • Half-Reactions and Redox Potentials

      • Identifying Redox Agents

      • Nernst Equation

  • Solutions, States of Matter, and Thermochemistry

    • Gases

      • Effusion

      • Gas Laws

      • Non-Ideal Gas Behavior

      • Partial Pressure

      • Properties of Gases

    • Liquids and Solutions

      • Calculating Solubility

      • Colligative Properties

      • Molarity, Molality, Normality

      • Properties of Liquids and Solutions

      • Solubility Rules and Precipitates

    • Thermochemistry and Changes of State

      • Calorimetry

      • Freezing and Melting

      • Phase Diagrams

      • Specific Heat Capacity

      • Standard Enthalpy and Entropy of Reactions

      • Vaporization and Condensation

  • Thermodynamics and Kinetics

    • Kinetics

      • Enzymes, Catalysts, and Activation Energy

      • Rate Laws

    • Thermodynamics

      • Gibb's Free Energy

      • Laws of Thermodynamics

      • Reaction Coordinate Diagrams

• Middle School Earth and Space Science

  • Earth's Place in the Solar System

    • Determine the next phase in a lunar cycle

    • Explain why the Earth has seasons

    • Interpret diagrams of eclipses

  • Earth's Place in the Universe

    • Define planets, solar systems, and galaxies

    • Describe the motion of objects in the universe

    • Understand the relative size and location of objects in the universe

  • Geologic Time Scale

    • Identify events and patterns in the fossil record

    • Interpret models of plate tectonics

  • Natural Disasters and Climate Change

    • Determine what can be done to prevent or predict natural disasters

    • Interpret data related to human activities that affect global temperatures

  • Rock Formation and Transformation

    • Describe how fossil fuels are made by the Earth

    • Distinguish between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

    • Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable resources

  • Weather and Climate

    • Describe the motion of air masses

    • Explain what causes storms, cold fronts, and warm fronts

    • Identify and explain Earth's different climates

    • Identify human impacts on the environment

    • Read a weather map

• Genetics

  • Genetics

    • Cell Division

    • Central Dogma of Biology

    • DNA Mutations, Damage, and Repair Mechanisms

    • Genetic Engineering

    • Inheritance Patterns, Pedigrees, and Genetic Disorders

    • Laboratory Procedures and Important Historical Experiments

    • Mendelian and Population Genetics

    • Properties of Nucleic Acids

    • Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

    • Viral Genetics

• High School Chemistry

  • Acid-Base Chemistry

    • Acids and Bases

      • Calculating pH and pOH

      • Definitions of Acids and Bases

      • Help with Acid-Base Reactions

      • Help with Buffers

      • Identifying Acids and Bases

      • Using Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)

      • Using Base Dissociation Constant (Kb)

    • Titrations

      • Help with Titration Curves

      • Identifying Unknown Concentration

      • Identifying Unknown Volume

  • Chemical Reactions

    • Balancing Reactions

      • Balancing Chemical Equations

      • Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

    • Equilibrium

      • Help with Equilibrium Constant

      • Help with Reaction Quotient

      • Identifying Reaction Equilibrium

    • Types of Reactions

      • Help with Addition Reactions

      • Help with Dissociation Reactions

      • Help with Double-Replacement Reactions

      • Help with Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

      • Help with Single-Replacement Reactions

  • Electrochemistry

    • Help with Anodes and Cathodes

    • Help with Electrolytic Cells

    • Help with Galvanic Cells

  • Elements and Compounds

    • Compounds and Bonding

      • Help with Covalent Bonds

      • Help with Intermolecular Forces

      • Help with Ionic Bonds

      • Help with Lewis Diagrams

      • Help with Molecular Formulas

      • Help with Polyatomic Ions

      • Help with Resonance

      • Help with VSEPR Theory and Geometry

      • Naming Compounds

    • Elements and Atoms

      • Help with Isotopes and Ions

      • Help with Orbital Diagrams and Theories

      • Help with Quantum Numbers

      • Help with Subatomic Particles

      • Identifying Elements

      • Using Orbital Notation

  • Kinetics

    • Help with Rate-Determining Steps

    • Help with Reaction Order

    • Help with Reaction Rate

  • Measurements

    • Precision, Accuracy, and Error

      • Calculating Error

    • Scientific Notation and Significant Figures

      • Using Scientific Notation

      • Using Significant Figures

    • Units

      • Help with Concentration Units

      • Using Avogadro's Number

      • Using Moles

      • Using SI Units

  • Nuclear Chemistry

    • Help with Radioactive Decay

    • Using Isotopic Notation

  • Phases of Matter

    • Gases and Gas Laws

      • Help with Properties of Gases

      • Using Avogadro's Law

      • Using Boyle's Law

      • Using Charles's Law

      • Using Gay-Lussac's Law

      • Using the Ideal Gas Law and Combined Gas Law

    • Phase Diagrams and Transitions

      • Help with Condensation and Vaporization

      • Help with Melting and Freezing

      • Help with Phase Diagrams

      • Help with Sublimation and Deposition

    • Solids and Liquids

      • Help with Properties of Liquids

      • Help with Properties of Solids

  • Solutions and Mixtures

    • Calculating Solubility

    • Help with Solubility Rules

    • Identifying Mixtures and Solutions

    • Identifying Precipitates

  • Stoichiometry

    • Help with Molecular Weight and Molar Mass

    • Identifying Limiting Reagents

    • Using Stoichiometry in Solutions

  • The Periodic Table

    • Help with Periodic Theories

    • Identifying Periodic Trends

    • Identifying Types of Elements

  • Thermochemistry and Energetics

    • Help with Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions

    • Help with Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

    • Help with Enthalpy

    • Help with Entropy

    • Help with Gibb's Free Energy

• High School Physics

  • Electricity and Magnetism

    • Electric Circuits

      • Capacitors+3 topics

        • Calculating Total Capacitance

        • Understanding Capacitance

        • Using Capacitor Equations

      • Circuit Calculations and Concepts+7 topics

        • Calculating Circuit Power

        • Kirchoff's Laws

        • Understanding Current in a Circuit

        • Understanding Electricity

        • Understanding Series and Parallel

        • Understanding Voltage in a Circuit

        • Use Ohm's Law

      • Resistors+3 topics

        • Calculating Total Resistance

        • Resistivity

        • Understanding Resistance

    • Electricity

      • Electric Charge

      • Electric Force

      • Understanding Electric Fields

    • Magnetism and Electromagnetism

      • Understanding Magnetic Fields

      • Understanding the Relationship with Current

      • Understanding the Right Hand Rules

  • Energy and Work

    • Energy

      • Calculating Kinetic Energy

      • Calculating Potential Energy

      • Types of Mechanical Energy

      • Understanding Conservation of Energy

      • Understanding Kinetic and Potential Energies

    • Power

      • Understand Power

    • Work

      • Calculating Work

      • Understanding Work

      • Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

  • Forces

    • Introduction to Forces

      • Identifying Forces and Systems

      • Understanding Force

      • Understanding the Relationship Between Force and Acceleration

    • Net Force

      • Calculating Force

      • Interpreting Force Diagrams

    • Specific Forces

      • Contact Forces

      • Gravitational Field

      • Understanding Frictional Force

      • Understanding Gravity and Weight

      • Understanding Normal Force

      • Understanding Universal Gravitation

  • Introductory Principles

    • Understanding Accuracy and Precision

    • Understanding Independent and Dependent Variables

    • Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

    • Understanding SI Units

    • Understanding Significant Figures

  • Motion and Mechanics

    • Circular Motion

      • Circular Motion+2 topics

        • Rotational Angular Momentum

        • Understand Torque

      • Understanding Circular Motion

      • Understanding Torque

      • Using Circular Motion Equations

    • Gas Laws

      • Understanding Isovolumetric Processes

    • Harmonic Motion

      • Energy of SHM

      • Period of SHM

      • Understanding Pendulums

      • Understanding Springs

      • Using Pendulum Equations

      • Using Spring Equations

    • Linear Motion

      • Freefall

      • Kinematic Equations

      • Understanding Distance, Velocity, and Acceleration

      • Understanding Motion in One Dimension

      • Understanding Motion in Two Dimensions

      • Understanding Motion with Constant Acceleration

      • Using Motion Equations

    • Momentum

      • Calculating Momentum

      • Conservation of Momentum

      • Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

      • Impulse and Momentum

      • Understanding Conservation of Momentum

      • Understanding Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

      • Understanding Momentum

    • Newton's Laws

      • Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

      • Understanding Newton's First Law

      • Understanding Newton's Second Law

      • Understanding Newton's Third Law

    • Representations of Motion

      • Representations of Motion

  • Thermodynamics

    • Enthalpy and Entropy

      • Understanding Enthalpy

      • Understanding Entropy

    • Heat

      • Understanding Effects of Heat on Volume

      • Understanding Heat and Temperature

      • Understanding Heat and Work

      • Understanding Heat Engines

      • Understanding the Concept of Energy Transfer

    • Laws of Thermodynamics

      • Understanding the First Law of Thermodynamics

      • Understanding the Second Law of Thermodynamics

      • Understanding the Third Law of Thermodynamics

      • Understanding the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

  • Waves, Sound, and Light

    • Light and Electromagnetic Waves

      • Understanding Photons

      • Understanding Refraction

      • Understanding the Electromagnetic Spectrum

    • Sound

      • Understanding Doppler

    • Waves

      • Interference and Superposition

      • Properties of Waves

      • Types of Waves

      • Understanding Amplitude and Period

      • Understanding Calculations with Velocity

      • Understanding the Concept of Waves

      • Understanding Types of Waves

      • Understanding Wavelength and Frequency

• Middle School Life Science

  • Cells and Organelles

    • Distinguish between plant and animal cells

    • Identify structure and function of organelles

  • Cycling of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems

    • Describe the flow of matter and energy in the water cycle

    • Describe the flow of matter in the carbon cycle

    • Describe the flow of matter in the nitrogen cycle

    • Explain the cycling of matter and energy in photosynthesis

  • Genetics and Heredity

    • Explain how genetic variation increases chances of survival

    • Model genes, DNA, and chromosomes

  • Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems

    • Describe how humans can help maintain biodiversity

    • Explain relationships in ecosystems

    • Understand food chains and food webs

    • Understand the effect of limited resources on populations

  • Meiosis and Mitosis

    • Understand meiosis

    • Understand mitosis

  • Natural Selection

    • Explain how natural selection leads to an increase or decrease in the expression of certain traits

    • Understand the effects of mutations

  • Organisms

    • Determine if an object is living or non-living and whether it is unicellular or multicellular

  • Punnett Squares

    • Use Punnett Squares

• Middle School Physical Science

  • Chemicals and Chemical Reactions

    • Compare and contrast synthetic materials and natural resources

    • Describe properties of substances

    • Determine whether a chemical reaction has occurred

    • Understand how changes in thermal energy affect particle motion, temperature, and state change

  • Energy in Chemical Reactions

    • Determine the relationships between energy transfer and change in kinetic energy

    • Determine the relationships between energy transfer and type of matter

    • Model the law of conservation of mass using equations

  • Forces and Motion

    • Describe balanced and unbalanced forces

    • Determine factors that affect electric and electromagnetic forces

    • Interpret force diagrams and sums of forces

  • Matter and Energy

    • Compare and contrast matter and energy

    • Identify types of energy

  • Newton's Laws

    • Understand and apply Newton's laws

  • Potential and Kinetic Energy

    • Describe how distance affects gravitational potential energy

    • Describe the relationships between kinetic energy, mass, and speed

    • Identify where potential energy is least or greatest as an object changes position

  • Structure and Properties of Matter

    • Describe atomic composition

    • Differentiate atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds

  • The Periodic Table

    • Reading the periodic table

  • Waves and Electromagnetism

    • Interpret simple models of waves

    • Predict whether a wave will be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through materials

• Organic Chemistry

  • Laboratory Practices

    • How to Identify Compounds

    • How to Purify Compounds

    • How to Quantify Compounds

    • Using Other Organic Chemistry Lab Techniques

  • Organic Concepts

    • Biological Molecules

      • Help with Organic Carbohydrates

      • Help with Organic Lipids

      • Help with Organic Proteins

      • Help with Other Biological Molecules

    • Intermolecular Forces and Stability

      • Help with Intermolecular Forces

      • Help with Molecular Properties

    • Nucleophiles and Electrophiles

      • Identifying Electron-Donating Groups

      • Identifying Electron-Withdrawing Groups

      • Identifying Electrophiles

      • Identifying Nucleophiles

    • Organic Functional Groups and Molecules

      • Organic Functional Groups+4 topics

        • Identifying Amino Compounds

        • Identifying Aromatic Compounds

        • Identifying Carbonyl Compounds

        • Identifying Other Organic Compounds

      • Organic Intermediates+4 topics

        • Help with Protecting Groups

        • Identifying Carbocations

        • Identifying Enolates

        • Identifying Imines and Enamines

    • Reactions Types

      • Help with Acid-Base Reactions

      • Help with Addition Reactions

      • Help with Elimination Reactions

      • Help with Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

      • Help with Radical Reactions

      • Help with Rearrangement Reactions

      • Help with Substitution Reactions

  • Reaction Mechanisms, Energetics, and Kinematics

    • Elimination Mechanisms

      • Help with E1 Reactions

      • Help with E2 Reactions

    • Other Reaction Mechanisms

      • Help with Electron Pushing

      • Identifying Reaction Mechanisms

    • Reaction Energetics and Kinetmatics

      • Help with Activation Energy and Catalysts

      • Help with Rate Calculations and Kinematics

    • Substitution Mechanisms

      • Help with SN1 Reactions

      • Help with SN2 Reactions

  • Reactions by Product

    • Amino Products

      • Help with Amine Synthesis

    • Carbonyl Products

      • Help with Alcohol Synthesis

      • Help with Aldehyde and Ketone Synthesis

      • Help with Carboxylic Acid Synthesis

      • Help with Ether and Ester Synthesis

      • Help with Other Carbonyl Products

    • Hydrocarbon Products

      • Help with Alkane Synthesis

      • Help with Alkene Synthesis

      • Help with Alkyne Synthesis

  • Reactions by Reactant

    • Amino Reactants

      • Help with Nitro and Amide Reactions

    • Carbonyl Reactants

      • Help with Alcohol Reactions

      • Help with Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions

      • Help with Carboxylic Acid Reactions

      • Help with Ether and Ester Reactions

      • Help with Other Carbonyl Reactions

    • Hydrocarbon Reactants

      • Help with Alkane Reactions

      • Help with Alkene Reactions

      • Help with Alkyne Reactions

  • Redox Chemistry

    • Organic Oxidizing Agents

      • Using Dichromate Compounds

      • Using Other Organic Oxidizing Agents

      • Using PCC

      • Using Potassium Permanganate

    • Organic Reducing Agents

      • Using Grignard Reagents

      • Using Lithium Aluminum Hydride

      • Using Other Organic Reducing Agents

      • Using Sodium Borohydride

    • Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

      • Finding Oxidation Number

      • Help with Oxidation

      • Help with Reduction

  • Specific Reactions and Named Reactions

    • Carbonyl Reactions

      • Help with Aldol Condensation

      • Help with Carboxylation and Decarboxylation

      • Help with Esterification

      • Help with Haloform Reactions

      • Help with Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions

      • Help with Keto-Enol Tautomerization

      • Help with Saponification

      • Help with Wittig Reactions

    • Hydrocarbon Reactions

      • Help with Diels-Alder Reactions

      • Help with Hydroboration

      • Help with Ozonolysis

    • Other Reactions

      • Help with Other Named Reactions

    • Reduction Reactions

      • Help with Grignard Reactions

      • Help with Wolff-Krishner Reduction

  • Stereochemistry

    • Benzene Additions

      • Assigning Ortho, Meta, Para

      • Predicting Benzene Orientation

    • Isomers

      • Help with Cis-Trans Isomers

      • Help with Comformers

      • Help with Diastereomers

      • Help with Enantiomers

      • Help with Epimers

      • Help with Meso Compounds

• Physical Chemistry

  • Electrochemistry

    • Batteries

    • Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells

    • Other Electrochemistry Concepts

    • Oxidation-Reduction Fundamentals

  • Equilibrium and Kinetics

    • Reaction Equilibrium

      • Acid-Base Equilibrium and Titration

      • Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient

      • Equilibrium in Solution

      • Le Chatelier's Principle

    • Reaction Kinetics

      • Catalysts and Enzymes

      • Inhibitors

      • Michaelis-Menton Analysis

      • Rate Law and Reaction Order

  • Nuclear, Quantum, and Molecular Chemistry

    • Atoms and Elements

      • Atomic Nucleus

      • Electron Configuration

      • Nuclear Forces

      • Orbitals and Hybridization

      • Other Atomic Concepts

      • Periodic Table Trends

      • Valence Electrons

    • Molecules

      • Bond Strength and Polarity

      • Covalent Bonding

      • Molecular Geometry and VSEPR

    • Quantum Chemistry

      • Electromagnetic Spectrum and Radiation

      • Emission and Absorption Spectra

      • Photons and Photon Energy

      • Principles of Quantum Mechanics

      • Quantum Numbers

      • Spectroscopy

  • Phases and Properties of Matter

    • Colligative Properties

      • Boiling Point

      • Freezing Point

      • Other Colligative Properties

    • Gases

      • Gas Laws

      • Real and Ideal Gases

    • General Physical Properties

      • Density

    • Intermolecular Forces

      • Identifying Intermolecular Forces

    • Ions and Solutions

      • Solubility Rules

    • Phase Interfaces and Surfaces

      • Factors Affecting Phase Interactions

      • Other Phase Interface Principles

    • Solids and Liquids

      • Properties of Liquids

      • Properties of Solids

      • Viscosity and Flow Mechanics

  • Thermochemistry and Thermodynamics

    • Thermochemistry

      • Calorimetry

      • Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

      • Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

      • Phase Changes

      • Phase Diagrams

    • Thermodynamics

      • Enthalpy and Entropy

      • Gibbs Free Energy

      • Heat Transfer

      • Isothermic, Isobaric, and Adiabatic Processes

      • Laws of Thermodynamics

      • Other Thermodynamic Principles

      • Work

• College Physics

  • Electromagnetics, Waves, and Optics

    • Electromagnetics

      • Circuits+4 topics

        • Capacitors

        • Ohm's Law and Current

        • Power

        • Resistors

      • Electromagnetic Radiation+1 topic

        • Electromagnetic Spectrum

      • Electrostatics+3 topics

        • Coulomb's Law

        • Electric Field and Electric Potential

        • Gauss's Law

      • Magnetism+2 topics

        • Faraday's Law of Induction

        • Magnetic Force

    • Optics

      • Lenses

      • Snell's Law and Index of Refraction

    • Waves

      • Doppler Effect

      • Fundamental Concepts

      • Harmonics and Standing Waves

  • Mechanics

    • Fluids

      • Continuity Equation

      • Density, Specific Gravity, and Viscosity

      • Pressure

    • Forces

      • Friction

      • Newton's Laws and Fundamental Concepts

      • Spring Force

      • Tension

      • Torque

      • Universal Gravitation

      • Using Free Body Diagrams

    • Motion

      • Harmonic Motion

      • Motion Diagrams

      • Motion in Two Dimensions

    • Work and Energy

      • Conservation of Momentum and Energy

      • Gravitational Potential Energy

      • Kinetic Energy

      • Spring Potential Energy and Other Potential Energy

  • Quantum and Nuclear Physics

    • Nuclear Physics

      • Radioactive Decay

    • Quantum Physics

      • Energy Quantization

      • Wave-Particle Duality

  • Thermodynamics

    • Ideal Gases

    • Isochoric Processes

    • Isothermal Processes

    • Laws of Thermodynamics and General Concepts