The chloroplast is believed to have evolved from photosynthetic bacteria that formed a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with an ancestor of plants through endosymbiosis. There is lots of evidence supporting the endosymbiotic theory, which is based on the principle of one organism phagocytosing another, resulting in mutualism.

Plants have a multicellular haploid stage called the gametophyte. Gametophytes () produce gametes () through mitosis, which combine to produce a zygote (). The zygote grows into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte (), which produces spores () through meiosis. Those spores give rise to multicellular gametophytes.

Biotic pollinators, such as bees and hummingbirds, share a mutualistic relationship with angiosperms. This leads to co-evolution, in which the selective pressure of one species impacts the genetic composition of another. In this case, the preferences of the pollinators impact the reproductive success of specific angiosperms.

Carbon fixation converts inorganic carbon dioxide into organic carbon compounds, such as glucose and cellulose. This is a characteristic function of both C3 and C4, and is a primary purpose of light independent reactions.

Closed stomata during the day is a characteristic of CAM plants, which allows for the conservation of water that is usually lost during photorespiration.

Bundle-sheath cells are a characteristic of C4 plants. The presence of bundle-sheath cells isolates rubisco, preventing rubisco from binding to oxygen during photorespiration.