Across the country, districts are debating when the middle school day should begin. Research on adolescent sleep shows that students' internal clocks shift later during puberty, making early alarms especially disruptive. In a two-year study of 3,000 students across four districts, moving the first bell from 7:30 to 8:45 was linked to a 34-minute average increase in nightly sleep, a 12 percent drop in tardies, and fewer clinic visits for headaches. Teachers reported calmer first-period classes, and one district saw modest gains in reading scores while math performance remained steady. A pediatrician who advised the study notes that chronic sleep loss elevates stress hormones, which can hinder memory formation. Critics worry later starts complicate bus schedules and after-school activities. Yet participating districts offset many costs by consolidating routes and saw attendance improve enough to recover state funding that would have been lost to absences. While schedules will always require trade-offs, the emerging evidence suggests that starting school later better aligns with adolescent biology and produces measurable academic and health benefits.

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Along the Texas Gulf Coast, communities face twin threats: steady erosion and stronger storm surges. For decades, the default response was to build higher seawalls or dump more rock. Recent projects test a different approach: pairing targeted engineering with "living" infrastructure. In Matagorda Bay, low rock sills placed offshore slow waves so that restored marsh can take root. USGS sensors recorded up to a 50 percent reduction in wave energy during moderate storms, and aerial surveys show the marsh platform gaining elevation rather than sinking. A Galveston pilot that combined dune rebuilding with planted sea oats avoided $2 million in maintenance over three years compared with adjacent rock-only segments. Fishers report more juvenile shrimp and oysters near the rebuilt habitats, and tourism boards point to broader beaches. Upfront costs are real, and not every shoreline is a candidate. But federal grants now cover much of the expense, and designs can be tailored to busy ship channels. Together, these results indicate that hybrid, nature-based defenses protect infrastructure while strengthening the coastal ecosystem Texans depend on.

Which evidence most effectively supports the passage's central claim that combining natural features with engineering offers the most sustainable coastal protection?

The Dust Bowl of the 1930s was more than a weather disaster; it reshaped American farming. After black blizzards stripped topsoil from the Great Plains, the federal government created the Soil Conservation Service and tied aid to practices like contour plowing, terracing, and planting windbreaks. County conservation districts, run with farmer input, spread these ideas quickly. A wheat grower in Kansas recalled that, once he switched to contour rows and left crop residue on fields, his yields stabilized even in dry years. By the 1950s, shelterbelts stretched for hundreds of miles, and extension agents demonstrated how rotating crops reduced erosion without sacrificing profits. Later, satellite imagery confirmed that dust concentrations on windy days dropped in areas that adopted these methods. The story includes debate—some landowners resisted regulations—but the long-term result was a system that made soil stewardship part of policy and practice. Today's conservation tillage and cover crops trace their roots to those reforms, showing how a crisis led to durable, evidence-based change.

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In Texas cities, opening government data to the public is changing how services run. Open-data portals publish information such as 311 service requests, road work orders, and budget line items in downloadable formats. When Austin released its 311 and public works datasets, a collaboration between city staff and local coders mapped trouble spots and rerouted crews; within a year, the average time to fill a pothole fell by 28 percent. Houston's online budget dashboards helped analysts flag duplicate contracts, leading to $1.2 million in savings that were redirected to drainage projects. In San Antonio, a student-built tool using open floodplain data helped residents check whether their streets were at risk before storms. Privacy safeguards, including removing names and precise addresses, protect individuals while preserving patterns officials need. Not every dataset is ready on day one, and staff training takes time. Even so, case studies across the state show that making data visible invites problem-solving from both inside and outside government, improving responsiveness and public trust.

Which evidence best supports the central claim that open-data portals improve city services in Texas?

Texas has always cycled through wet and dry years, but longer, hotter summers mean that cities must plan for drought as a regular condition, not a rare emergency. The most reliable path to resilience is a layered conservation strategy that reduces demand without stalling growth. First, fixing leaks saves enormous amounts of water: the Texas Water Development Board estimates that aging pipes can waste more than a tenth of a city's supply. San Antonio shows what is possible; through aggressive leak detection, tiered pricing, and rebates for efficient appliances and xeriscaping, the city has cut per-person use nearly in half since the 1980s. Second, pricing that rewards low use and discourages waste nudges behavior without banning everyday activities. Third, public education helps residents shift habits, from watering lawns less often to choosing native plants. As one hydrologist put it, "The cheapest water is the water you don't waste." Because conservation programs are far less expensive than building new reservoirs or pipelines, they also protect ratepayers. Together, these steps create drought-ready communities that can keep taps flowing and businesses open even when rainfall is scarce.

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Middle and high schools that start later in the morning give students a measurable academic boost. Adolescents' body clocks shift during puberty, making it hard to fall asleep early and wake up before sunrise. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends school start times of 8:30 a.m. or later. Districts that have moved the bell have seen results. In one multi-year study of more than 30,000 students, average grades rose and first-period failures fell after start times were pushed back by 50 minutes. In another large district, standardized math and reading scores climbed three to five percentile points within a year. Attendance and punctuality also improved, and a state highway analysis found fewer teen car crashes during the before-school commute. Teachers report more participation in early classes, and nurses log fewer visits for headaches and fatigue. While phone use and homework loads still matter, the pattern across studies is clear: when schools align schedules with adolescent sleep biology, students learn more and stay healthier.

Which piece of evidence most effectively supports the author's claim that later start times improve learning?

Reliable home internet access has become essential for homework, job applications, and telehealth, yet millions of households lack broadband or an affordable data plan. Public libraries have stepped into this gap by lending Wi-Fi hotspots and expanding outdoor Wi-Fi so that parking lots function as study spaces. The model is simple: a patron checks out a small device that turns a cellular signal into home Wi-Fi. In a statewide pilot, families who borrowed hotspots reported finishing assignments on time at much higher rates, and circulation data showed the devices were heaviest in use during grading periods. Librarians pair the loans with digital-skills workshops, helping parents learn to navigate school portals and online forms. Partnerships with school districts and nonprofits keep costs manageable; grants cover data plans, while local donors fund extra devices. One rural library consortium even mounted hotspots on bookmobiles to reach areas with weak signals. Because libraries already serve all ages and neighborhoods, hotspot lending offers a practical, low-cost way to narrow the homework gap while longer-term broadband projects are built.

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Wind energy has become a steady economic engine for many rural Texas counties. On the High Plains and along the Gulf Coast, steady winds have drawn developers to build turbines on ranchland that still supports cattle and crops. The resulting projects generate predictable revenue that small communities can count on. County appraisal records show that, over the past decade, wind farms have added hundreds of millions of dollars to local tax rolls; in Nolan County alone, annual property tax payments from wind projects have topped ten million dollars for several consecutive years, helping fund roads and emergency services. School districts benefit through negotiated agreements, and landowners receive long-term lease payments that supplement farm income during droughts or low commodity prices. The state's investment in long-distance transmission lines made this growth possible by moving power from windy regions to big cities. While turbines require careful siting and maintenance, the economic pattern is consistent: wind power diversifies rural economies and provides stable public revenue without displacing traditional land uses.

Which evidence from the article most effectively supports the thesis that wind farms have provided stable revenue to rural Texas counties?