Orbitals and Hybridization - Physical Chemistry

Orbitals are regions in an electron shell where electrons might be located. There are several types of orbitals such as , and . Most elements found on the periodic table contain electrons within one of these orbitals. A characteristic of an orbital is that it can only contain two electrons maximum. A shell might contain multiple orbitals; however, each orbital can only contain two electrons. Each orbital has a unique shape that corresponds to the electron density (the possible location of an electron at a given point in time). The orbital has a spherical shape whereas the orbital has a dumbbell shape. As mentioned, a shell can contain multiple types of orbitals. A shell can typically contain one orbital, three orbitals, five orbitals, and seven orbitals. Remember that the shape of the orbital has no bearing on the amount of orbitals in a shell. An orbital is higher in energy if it is found farther away from the nucleus. The orbitals in order of increasing energy is as follows . Therefore, an orbital has lower energy than a orbital in the same shell.

To answer this question, we need to find the electron configuration of both elemental sodium and sodium cation. If we look at the periodic table we can see that sodium is found on the first column. Since it is found in the first column, sodium has one valence electron. To complete octet, sodium will readily lose an electron and become a positively charged sodium ion. The electron configuration for sodium is . The electron configuration for sodium ion is (because it lost its electron in the orbital). This means that elemental sodium has an unpaired electron in its orbital; the sodium ion has no unpaired electrons. Recall that an unpaired electron can generate its own magnetic field and is called paramagnetic; therefore, solid sodium is paramagnetic. The number of electrons in the orbitals for both sodium and sodium ion is the same (6 electrons total in the orbital). The outermost shell of sodium is the third shell (because sodium is located on the third row of periodic table). Elemental sodium contains one electron in the orbital in the outermost shell whereas the sodium ion contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell.

Hybridization is a process involving the fusion, or hybridization, of and orbitals to form a unique orbital. It is possible for various combinations of and hybridization. Recall that there is one orbital and three orbitals in each shell. This means that the one orbital can hybridize with 1, 2, or all 3 orbitals. Since there are three total combinations, there are three types of hybridized orbitals. These are , , and . orbital has one and one orbital hybridized. This means that the orbital and the first orbital become a new orbital. A molecule with hybridization will have two orbitals and two orbitals. Similarly, an orbital is made from the hybridization of one and two orbitals. In hybridization, there are three orbitals and one orbital. Finally, an orbital has one and all three orbitals; therefore, an hybridized molecule will have four orbitals and no orbitals. The question states that there are three hybridized orbitals in this molecule; therefore, this molecule must be hybridized. The single orbital is unhybridized because the molecule probably has a double bond. Electrons in bonds in double and triple bonds cannot be found in hybridized orbitals; therefore, they need their own orbital. If a molecule has one bond (double bond), then it will need one orbital and will be hybridized (because this will give three hybridized orbitals and one orbital). If it has two bonds (triple bond), then it will need two orbitals and will be hybridized. If a molecule has all bonds (single bonds), then the molecule will require no empty orbitals for the delocalized electrons, and will be hybridized.

Carbon tetrachloride, , has a central carbon atom attached to four chlorine atoms. The bonds between the carbon atom and chlorine atoms are single covalent bonds. The electrons in a single bond ( bond) can be found in hybridized orbitals. Since carbon tetrachloride only has single bonds, the carbon atom can hybridize all of its orbitals (one and three ) in the outermost shell and form a hybridization; therefore, three orbitals and one orbital participate in hybridization leading us to the correct answer. Carbon dioxide, , has a central carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. To complete octet, carbon and oxygen atoms have double bonds. This means that carbon dioxide has two bonds (two double bonds). Recall that electrons in bonds cannot reside in hybridized orbitals; therefore, to accommodate the two bonds we need two empty, unhybridized orbitals. This means that carbon dioxide will have hybridization of one and one orbital, giving it an hybridization.

The hybridization of an atom can be determined by the number of atoms it is bonded to, as well as the number of lone pairs it has. Two of these variables would be sp, three variables would be sp2, and four would be sp3.

The nitrogen in ammonia is bonded to three atoms of hydrogen, but also has a lone pair in order to satisfy its octet. This means that nitrogen exhibits sp3 hybridization.

Orbitals are regions in an electron shell where electrons might be located. There are several types of orbitals such as , and . Most elements found on the periodic table contain electrons within one of these orbitals. A characteristic of an orbital is that it can only contain two electrons maximum. A shell might contain multiple orbitals; however, each orbital can only contain two electrons. Each orbital has a unique shape that corresponds to the electron density (the possible location of an electron at a given point in time). The orbital has a spherical shape whereas the orbital has a dumbbell shape. As mentioned, a shell can contain multiple types of orbitals. A shell can typically contain one orbital, three orbitals, five orbitals, and seven orbitals. Remember that the shape of the orbital has no bearing on the amount of orbitals in a shell. An orbital is higher in energy if it is found farther away from the nucleus. The orbitals in order of increasing energy is as follows . Therefore, an orbital has lower energy than a orbital in the same shell.

To answer this question, we need to find the electron configuration of both elemental sodium and sodium cation. If we look at the periodic table we can see that sodium is found on the first column. Since it is found in the first column, sodium has one valence electron. To complete octet, sodium will readily lose an electron and become a positively charged sodium ion. The electron configuration for sodium is . The electron configuration for sodium ion is (because it lost its electron in the orbital). This means that elemental sodium has an unpaired electron in its orbital; the sodium ion has no unpaired electrons. Recall that an unpaired electron can generate its own magnetic field and is called paramagnetic; therefore, solid sodium is paramagnetic. The number of electrons in the orbitals for both sodium and sodium ion is the same (6 electrons total in the orbital). The outermost shell of sodium is the third shell (because sodium is located on the third row of periodic table). Elemental sodium contains one electron in the orbital in the outermost shell whereas the sodium ion contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell.

Hybridization is a process involving the fusion, or hybridization, of and orbitals to form a unique orbital. It is possible for various combinations of and hybridization. Recall that there is one orbital and three orbitals in each shell. This means that the one orbital can hybridize with 1, 2, or all 3 orbitals. Since there are three total combinations, there are three types of hybridized orbitals. These are , , and . orbital has one and one orbital hybridized. This means that the orbital and the first orbital become a new orbital. A molecule with hybridization will have two orbitals and two orbitals. Similarly, an orbital is made from the hybridization of one and two orbitals. In hybridization, there are three orbitals and one orbital. Finally, an orbital has one and all three orbitals; therefore, an hybridized molecule will have four orbitals and no orbitals. The question states that there are three hybridized orbitals in this molecule; therefore, this molecule must be hybridized. The single orbital is unhybridized because the molecule probably has a double bond. Electrons in bonds in double and triple bonds cannot be found in hybridized orbitals; therefore, they need their own orbital. If a molecule has one bond (double bond), then it will need one orbital and will be hybridized (because this will give three hybridized orbitals and one orbital). If it has two bonds (triple bond), then it will need two orbitals and will be hybridized. If a molecule has all bonds (single bonds), then the molecule will require no empty orbitals for the delocalized electrons, and will be hybridized.

Carbon tetrachloride, , has a central carbon atom attached to four chlorine atoms. The bonds between the carbon atom and chlorine atoms are single covalent bonds. The electrons in a single bond ( bond) can be found in hybridized orbitals. Since carbon tetrachloride only has single bonds, the carbon atom can hybridize all of its orbitals (one and three ) in the outermost shell and form a hybridization; therefore, three orbitals and one orbital participate in hybridization leading us to the correct answer. Carbon dioxide, , has a central carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. To complete octet, carbon and oxygen atoms have double bonds. This means that carbon dioxide has two bonds (two double bonds). Recall that electrons in bonds cannot reside in hybridized orbitals; therefore, to accommodate the two bonds we need two empty, unhybridized orbitals. This means that carbon dioxide will have hybridization of one and one orbital, giving it an hybridization.

The hybridization of an atom can be determined by the number of atoms it is bonded to, as well as the number of lone pairs it has. Two of these variables would be sp, three variables would be sp2, and four would be sp3.

The nitrogen in ammonia is bonded to three atoms of hydrogen, but also has a lone pair in order to satisfy its octet. This means that nitrogen exhibits sp3 hybridization.

Orbitals are regions in an electron shell where electrons might be located. There are several types of orbitals such as , and . Most elements found on the periodic table contain electrons within one of these orbitals. A characteristic of an orbital is that it can only contain two electrons maximum. A shell might contain multiple orbitals; however, each orbital can only contain two electrons. Each orbital has a unique shape that corresponds to the electron density (the possible location of an electron at a given point in time). The orbital has a spherical shape whereas the orbital has a dumbbell shape. As mentioned, a shell can contain multiple types of orbitals. A shell can typically contain one orbital, three orbitals, five orbitals, and seven orbitals. Remember that the shape of the orbital has no bearing on the amount of orbitals in a shell. An orbital is higher in energy if it is found farther away from the nucleus. The orbitals in order of increasing energy is as follows . Therefore, an orbital has lower energy than a orbital in the same shell.

To answer this question, we need to find the electron configuration of both elemental sodium and sodium cation. If we look at the periodic table we can see that sodium is found on the first column. Since it is found in the first column, sodium has one valence electron. To complete octet, sodium will readily lose an electron and become a positively charged sodium ion. The electron configuration for sodium is . The electron configuration for sodium ion is (because it lost its electron in the orbital). This means that elemental sodium has an unpaired electron in its orbital; the sodium ion has no unpaired electrons. Recall that an unpaired electron can generate its own magnetic field and is called paramagnetic; therefore, solid sodium is paramagnetic. The number of electrons in the orbitals for both sodium and sodium ion is the same (6 electrons total in the orbital). The outermost shell of sodium is the third shell (because sodium is located on the third row of periodic table). Elemental sodium contains one electron in the orbital in the outermost shell whereas the sodium ion contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell.

Hybridization is a process involving the fusion, or hybridization, of and orbitals to form a unique orbital. It is possible for various combinations of and hybridization. Recall that there is one orbital and three orbitals in each shell. This means that the one orbital can hybridize with 1, 2, or all 3 orbitals. Since there are three total combinations, there are three types of hybridized orbitals. These are , , and . orbital has one and one orbital hybridized. This means that the orbital and the first orbital become a new orbital. A molecule with hybridization will have two orbitals and two orbitals. Similarly, an orbital is made from the hybridization of one and two orbitals. In hybridization, there are three orbitals and one orbital. Finally, an orbital has one and all three orbitals; therefore, an hybridized molecule will have four orbitals and no orbitals. The question states that there are three hybridized orbitals in this molecule; therefore, this molecule must be hybridized. The single orbital is unhybridized because the molecule probably has a double bond. Electrons in bonds in double and triple bonds cannot be found in hybridized orbitals; therefore, they need their own orbital. If a molecule has one bond (double bond), then it will need one orbital and will be hybridized (because this will give three hybridized orbitals and one orbital). If it has two bonds (triple bond), then it will need two orbitals and will be hybridized. If a molecule has all bonds (single bonds), then the molecule will require no empty orbitals for the delocalized electrons, and will be hybridized.

Carbon tetrachloride, , has a central carbon atom attached to four chlorine atoms. The bonds between the carbon atom and chlorine atoms are single covalent bonds. The electrons in a single bond ( bond) can be found in hybridized orbitals. Since carbon tetrachloride only has single bonds, the carbon atom can hybridize all of its orbitals (one and three ) in the outermost shell and form a hybridization; therefore, three orbitals and one orbital participate in hybridization leading us to the correct answer. Carbon dioxide, , has a central carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. To complete octet, carbon and oxygen atoms have double bonds. This means that carbon dioxide has two bonds (two double bonds). Recall that electrons in bonds cannot reside in hybridized orbitals; therefore, to accommodate the two bonds we need two empty, unhybridized orbitals. This means that carbon dioxide will have hybridization of one and one orbital, giving it an hybridization.

The hybridization of an atom can be determined by the number of atoms it is bonded to, as well as the number of lone pairs it has. Two of these variables would be sp, three variables would be sp2, and four would be sp3.

The nitrogen in ammonia is bonded to three atoms of hydrogen, but also has a lone pair in order to satisfy its octet. This means that nitrogen exhibits sp3 hybridization.

Orbitals are regions in an electron shell where electrons might be located. There are several types of orbitals such as , and . Most elements found on the periodic table contain electrons within one of these orbitals. A characteristic of an orbital is that it can only contain two electrons maximum. A shell might contain multiple orbitals; however, each orbital can only contain two electrons. Each orbital has a unique shape that corresponds to the electron density (the possible location of an electron at a given point in time). The orbital has a spherical shape whereas the orbital has a dumbbell shape. As mentioned, a shell can contain multiple types of orbitals. A shell can typically contain one orbital, three orbitals, five orbitals, and seven orbitals. Remember that the shape of the orbital has no bearing on the amount of orbitals in a shell. An orbital is higher in energy if it is found farther away from the nucleus. The orbitals in order of increasing energy is as follows . Therefore, an orbital has lower energy than a orbital in the same shell.

To answer this question, we need to find the electron configuration of both elemental sodium and sodium cation. If we look at the periodic table we can see that sodium is found on the first column. Since it is found in the first column, sodium has one valence electron. To complete octet, sodium will readily lose an electron and become a positively charged sodium ion. The electron configuration for sodium is . The electron configuration for sodium ion is (because it lost its electron in the orbital). This means that elemental sodium has an unpaired electron in its orbital; the sodium ion has no unpaired electrons. Recall that an unpaired electron can generate its own magnetic field and is called paramagnetic; therefore, solid sodium is paramagnetic. The number of electrons in the orbitals for both sodium and sodium ion is the same (6 electrons total in the orbital). The outermost shell of sodium is the third shell (because sodium is located on the third row of periodic table). Elemental sodium contains one electron in the orbital in the outermost shell whereas the sodium ion contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell.

Hybridization is a process involving the fusion, or hybridization, of and orbitals to form a unique orbital. It is possible for various combinations of and hybridization. Recall that there is one orbital and three orbitals in each shell. This means that the one orbital can hybridize with 1, 2, or all 3 orbitals. Since there are three total combinations, there are three types of hybridized orbitals. These are , , and . orbital has one and one orbital hybridized. This means that the orbital and the first orbital become a new orbital. A molecule with hybridization will have two orbitals and two orbitals. Similarly, an orbital is made from the hybridization of one and two orbitals. In hybridization, there are three orbitals and one orbital. Finally, an orbital has one and all three orbitals; therefore, an hybridized molecule will have four orbitals and no orbitals. The question states that there are three hybridized orbitals in this molecule; therefore, this molecule must be hybridized. The single orbital is unhybridized because the molecule probably has a double bond. Electrons in bonds in double and triple bonds cannot be found in hybridized orbitals; therefore, they need their own orbital. If a molecule has one bond (double bond), then it will need one orbital and will be hybridized (because this will give three hybridized orbitals and one orbital). If it has two bonds (triple bond), then it will need two orbitals and will be hybridized. If a molecule has all bonds (single bonds), then the molecule will require no empty orbitals for the delocalized electrons, and will be hybridized.

Carbon tetrachloride, , has a central carbon atom attached to four chlorine atoms. The bonds between the carbon atom and chlorine atoms are single covalent bonds. The electrons in a single bond ( bond) can be found in hybridized orbitals. Since carbon tetrachloride only has single bonds, the carbon atom can hybridize all of its orbitals (one and three ) in the outermost shell and form a hybridization; therefore, three orbitals and one orbital participate in hybridization leading us to the correct answer. Carbon dioxide, , has a central carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. To complete octet, carbon and oxygen atoms have double bonds. This means that carbon dioxide has two bonds (two double bonds). Recall that electrons in bonds cannot reside in hybridized orbitals; therefore, to accommodate the two bonds we need two empty, unhybridized orbitals. This means that carbon dioxide will have hybridization of one and one orbital, giving it an hybridization.