Constipation is a common complaint in children. Encopresis occurs when children are incontinent of fecal matter after toilet training. Often, a child will leak stool surrounding a large fecal mass that has hardened in the rectum. Giving a child an enema may help to clear the mass and restore bowel function. Constipation should be avoided through exercise, high-fiber diet, and adequate liquid ingestion.

It is normal for a child's head to be slightly misshapen immediately following birth. The infant's skull is composed of bony plates connected by membranes (fontanelles), allowing for accommodation of the baby's growing brain. Caput succedaneum (swelling of the scalp) can also be found following a long delivery. A misshapen head usually resolves on its own and is normal but does not require any medical intervention.

An APGAR (Appearance Pulse Grimace Activity Respiration) score is a quick assessment designed to indicate the condition of the baby after birth. Referring to the APGAR scoring method, point allocations are as follows:

Heart rate of less than 100: 1

Good flexion: 2

Frown (reflex): 1

Irregular respirations: 1

Pink skin color: 2

We add these to get the final APGAR score of 7.

An APGAR (Appearance Pulse Grimace Activity Respiration) score is a quick assessment designed to indicate the condition of the baby after birth. Referring to the APGAR scoring method, point allocations are as follows

Heart rate less than 100: 1

Poor flexion: 0

Absent reflex: 0

Apnea: 0

Pallor: 0

We add these individual scores to get the APGAR score of 1.

The question describes the rooting reflex. The Moro reflex is shown when an infant is startled and/or feels loss of support as if he/she is falling. He/she will extend the arms above the body in a curved shape. The Babinski reflex occurs in response to stimulation of the sole of the foot. Typically, the large toe will extend or remain extended as the others move. Infants may also exhibit plantar grasp with application of pressure to the foot. In plantar grasp, the toes will flex inward. Infants displaying palmar grasp will close their fingers around an object placed in their hand.

The anterior fontanelle is commonly referred to as the "soft spot" located atop a child's head. It allows considerable brain growth until it closes, generally between 12-18 months. However, the fontanelle may close on some children as early as 9 months.

Crying is considered a late sign of hunger. By the time the infant cries, they may be more difficult to console or to feed, especially if breastfeeding. Feed on cue when the infant is rooting, making sucking motions, or when they are frequently bringing their hands to their face or mouth.

Microcephaly denotes a congenital abnormality of the forebrain in which an infant is born with a diminished brain size. Potential causes include fetal alcohol syndrome, congenital rubella, and trisomy 18.

The other answers are all examples of congenital forebrain birth defects:

• Anencephaly is the complete absence of major portions of the brain, skull, and scalp.
• Agyri is the absence of gyri.
• Polymicrogyri is a condition in which gyri are too many, too small, and very shallow.

Anencephaly and other neural tube defects have been linked to maternal deficiency of folate. This is most likely due to folate's role in methylation and nucleic acid synthesis. The other nutrients listed are all important to maternal health but have no known correlation with neural tube defects such as anencephaly.

Periventricular leukomalacia is the most common finding on autopsy of newborns with cerebral palsy. PVL involves the softening of the brain tissue and subsequent death of the white matter. This is caused by lack of blood flow to the periventricular area of the brain, which results in necrosis and gliosis of brain tissue. Neonates born with PVL are likely to have mental impairment, motor disorders, and compromised vision and hearing. PVL is usually diagnosed with ultrasound of the head. None of the other conditions listed typically present with this finding.