Individual Behavior and Learning - MCAT Psychological and Social Foundations
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Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The managers of the dog pound offer to start paying Jimmy and Nate. Who is more likely to experience a decrease in job satisfaction?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The managers of the dog pound offer to start paying Jimmy and Nate. Who is more likely to experience a decrease in job satisfaction?
Tap to reveal answer
The value of being with dogs is an intrinsic value for Jimmy; he genuinely likes being with them. Nate’s value associated with being with dogs has an extrinsic value of obtaining service hours. Overjustification is a sociological effect that occurs when intrinsic value decreases because extrinsic values, such as money, are introduced to the situation. Since Jimmy’s value is highly intrinsic, he is more likely to experience the effects of overjustification.
The value of being with dogs is an intrinsic value for Jimmy; he genuinely likes being with them. Nate’s value associated with being with dogs has an extrinsic value of obtaining service hours. Overjustification is a sociological effect that occurs when intrinsic value decreases because extrinsic values, such as money, are introduced to the situation. Since Jimmy’s value is highly intrinsic, he is more likely to experience the effects of overjustification.
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Excerpt from “Institutional Competition,” Edward A. Ross, American Journal of Sociology 1919 25:2, 171-184
The first impulse of any organization or institution on the appearance of a serious competitor is to destroy competition. The "trust" regularly cuts the prices of its products to a point below cost of production in localities in which an "independent" seeks to sell. A shipping combine will have "fighting ships" which are called into play when a new steamship line enters their trade. As soon as the competitor announces a sailing date the combine advertises a steamer to sail on or near this date and offers a freight rate below the actual cost of carriage. In this way the competitor is prevented from securing a cargo.
The highest social class hobbles by minute sumptuary regulations the classes, which aspire to come up abreast of it. In feudal Japan, for example, one might not use his money as he pleased. The farmer, craftsman, or shopkeeper could not build a house as he liked or procure himself such articles of luxury as his taste might incline him to buy. The richest commoner might not order certain things to be made for him, might not imitate the habits or assume the privileges of his betters. Although urged on economic grounds, sumptuary restrictions are doubtless intended to protect the monopoly of prestige by the higher social orders.
The spread of anti-slavery feeling among the producing people of the North during the generation before the American Civil War was due to their perception that slavery is a menace to the free-labor system. In accounting for the early abolition of slavery in Massachusetts John Adams remarks: "Argument might have had some weight ... but the real cause was the multiplication of laboring white people who would not longer suffer the rich to employ these sable rivals so much to their injury."
The whole history of religious persecution is the history of an organization trying to establish itself as a monopoly by ruthless destruction of the spokesmen of competing doctrines and movements. In Diocletian's time Roman religious beliefs were weak while the Christian beliefs were vigorous and spreading. In desperation the old system made a ferocious attempt to exterminate all Christians. A thousand years later the church stamped certain sects out of existence and strangled heresies in the cradle. Says Coulton:
…What Darwin took at first for a smooth unbroken grassland proved, on nearer examination, to be thick-set with tiny self-sown firs, which the cattle regularly cropped as they grew. Similarly, that which some love to picture as the harmonious growth of one great body through the Middle Ages is really a history of many divergent opinions violently strangled at birth; while hundreds more, too vigorous to be killed by the adverse surroundings, and elastic enough to take something of the outward color of their environment, grew in spite of the hierarchy into organisms which, in their turn, profoundly modified the whole constitution of the Church. If the mediaeval theory and practice of persecution had still been in full force in the eighteenth century in England, nearly all the best Wesleyans would have chosen to remain within the Church rather than to shed blood in revolt; and the rest would have been killed off like wild beasts. The present unity of Romanism so far as it exists, is due less to tact than to naked force.
Suppose that Steve volunteers to help out on his uncle’s cargo ship. After two weeks of working for free, Steve’s uncle decides to start paying Steve. Steve is excited to be paid, but he finds the work much less satisfying than it was before. What motivational principle does this example best demonstrate?
Excerpt from “Institutional Competition,” Edward A. Ross, American Journal of Sociology 1919 25:2, 171-184
The first impulse of any organization or institution on the appearance of a serious competitor is to destroy competition. The "trust" regularly cuts the prices of its products to a point below cost of production in localities in which an "independent" seeks to sell. A shipping combine will have "fighting ships" which are called into play when a new steamship line enters their trade. As soon as the competitor announces a sailing date the combine advertises a steamer to sail on or near this date and offers a freight rate below the actual cost of carriage. In this way the competitor is prevented from securing a cargo.
The highest social class hobbles by minute sumptuary regulations the classes, which aspire to come up abreast of it. In feudal Japan, for example, one might not use his money as he pleased. The farmer, craftsman, or shopkeeper could not build a house as he liked or procure himself such articles of luxury as his taste might incline him to buy. The richest commoner might not order certain things to be made for him, might not imitate the habits or assume the privileges of his betters. Although urged on economic grounds, sumptuary restrictions are doubtless intended to protect the monopoly of prestige by the higher social orders.
The spread of anti-slavery feeling among the producing people of the North during the generation before the American Civil War was due to their perception that slavery is a menace to the free-labor system. In accounting for the early abolition of slavery in Massachusetts John Adams remarks: "Argument might have had some weight ... but the real cause was the multiplication of laboring white people who would not longer suffer the rich to employ these sable rivals so much to their injury."
The whole history of religious persecution is the history of an organization trying to establish itself as a monopoly by ruthless destruction of the spokesmen of competing doctrines and movements. In Diocletian's time Roman religious beliefs were weak while the Christian beliefs were vigorous and spreading. In desperation the old system made a ferocious attempt to exterminate all Christians. A thousand years later the church stamped certain sects out of existence and strangled heresies in the cradle. Says Coulton:
…What Darwin took at first for a smooth unbroken grassland proved, on nearer examination, to be thick-set with tiny self-sown firs, which the cattle regularly cropped as they grew. Similarly, that which some love to picture as the harmonious growth of one great body through the Middle Ages is really a history of many divergent opinions violently strangled at birth; while hundreds more, too vigorous to be killed by the adverse surroundings, and elastic enough to take something of the outward color of their environment, grew in spite of the hierarchy into organisms which, in their turn, profoundly modified the whole constitution of the Church. If the mediaeval theory and practice of persecution had still been in full force in the eighteenth century in England, nearly all the best Wesleyans would have chosen to remain within the Church rather than to shed blood in revolt; and the rest would have been killed off like wild beasts. The present unity of Romanism so far as it exists, is due less to tact than to naked force.
Suppose that Steve volunteers to help out on his uncle’s cargo ship. After two weeks of working for free, Steve’s uncle decides to start paying Steve. Steve is excited to be paid, but he finds the work much less satisfying than it was before. What motivational principle does this example best demonstrate?
Tap to reveal answer
Overjustification is the principle best illustrated in this example. Overjustification is defined as the effect of an extrinsic reward diminishing an intrinsic reward. In this example, Steve at first finds the work aboard his Uncle’s ship satisfying (intrinsic), but when he starts receiving pay (extrinsic), that satisfaction decreases. Thus, overjustification is best illustrated. Delayed gratification is not demonstrated in this example; it assumes that accessing a reward later will lead to more satisfaction than now.
Overjustification is the principle best illustrated in this example. Overjustification is defined as the effect of an extrinsic reward diminishing an intrinsic reward. In this example, Steve at first finds the work aboard his Uncle’s ship satisfying (intrinsic), but when he starts receiving pay (extrinsic), that satisfaction decreases. Thus, overjustification is best illustrated. Delayed gratification is not demonstrated in this example; it assumes that accessing a reward later will lead to more satisfaction than now.
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Excerpt from “Two Kinds of Vocational Education” by Julius T. House, 1921
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Sep., 1921), pp. 222-225
There are two schools of thinkers interested in vocational education. One of these is individualistic, thinks in teams of fitting the child to the job, accepts the present economic system with little, if any, criticism. It would isolate consideration of the vocation, so far as possible, from consideration of its social purposes. Psychologically its plan is based upon habit, with no thought of developing in the child a sense of the relation of his work to the whole social process. To secure the result sought there must be early separation of technical schools from the rest of the school system. It is proposed to begin with the seventh grade, the so-called junior high school.
The purpose of the technical school is and will be to get the answer, already known to the teacher, by the shortest route. Emphasis will be laid on rapid calculation; swift, effective movement; automatic response. The typewriter, the shorthand notebook, the hammer and nail, the stove, the furnace, the retort, are the instruments of education. A technique of salesmanship and advertising, without the regard to the ethics of these operations and with no comprehension of the principles of psychology, is developed. Rough-and-ready adaptation to a rough-and-ready business world is the goal.
Certain results follow: (1) Even more rigid division of industrial life between two groups: those who manage, in whom power of initiative is vested; those who are skilled in narrow processes with no outlook upon the meaning of the work. (2) The exploitation of this isolated class. (3) The establishment of an institution to perpetuate this condition. Custom is already being instituted of sending the children of poor families to this manual-skill-producing school. (4) Public taxation to support institutions to assist business based on the supposition that when business prospers moral values take care of themselves.
The second group of thinkers, seemingly few but with men like John Dewey leading, are interested in vocational education as a means of introducing the child more intimately into the life of society. It is believed that such study should be directed to the perception of the relation of vocations to all the social process. Therefore all the students are to study all the vocations. The choice of a life-work will be, then, only a by-product of the training—important indeed, but still a by-product. Already such work is done in the grades. It remains only to enlarge it and relate it to the proper sciences as the later years of school life are reached.
According to the principle of overjustification, what is the likely result over time of immediately assigning jobs and careers to people based on areas of initial interest?
Excerpt from “Two Kinds of Vocational Education” by Julius T. House, 1921
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Sep., 1921), pp. 222-225
There are two schools of thinkers interested in vocational education. One of these is individualistic, thinks in teams of fitting the child to the job, accepts the present economic system with little, if any, criticism. It would isolate consideration of the vocation, so far as possible, from consideration of its social purposes. Psychologically its plan is based upon habit, with no thought of developing in the child a sense of the relation of his work to the whole social process. To secure the result sought there must be early separation of technical schools from the rest of the school system. It is proposed to begin with the seventh grade, the so-called junior high school.
The purpose of the technical school is and will be to get the answer, already known to the teacher, by the shortest route. Emphasis will be laid on rapid calculation; swift, effective movement; automatic response. The typewriter, the shorthand notebook, the hammer and nail, the stove, the furnace, the retort, are the instruments of education. A technique of salesmanship and advertising, without the regard to the ethics of these operations and with no comprehension of the principles of psychology, is developed. Rough-and-ready adaptation to a rough-and-ready business world is the goal.
Certain results follow: (1) Even more rigid division of industrial life between two groups: those who manage, in whom power of initiative is vested; those who are skilled in narrow processes with no outlook upon the meaning of the work. (2) The exploitation of this isolated class. (3) The establishment of an institution to perpetuate this condition. Custom is already being instituted of sending the children of poor families to this manual-skill-producing school. (4) Public taxation to support institutions to assist business based on the supposition that when business prospers moral values take care of themselves.
The second group of thinkers, seemingly few but with men like John Dewey leading, are interested in vocational education as a means of introducing the child more intimately into the life of society. It is believed that such study should be directed to the perception of the relation of vocations to all the social process. Therefore all the students are to study all the vocations. The choice of a life-work will be, then, only a by-product of the training—important indeed, but still a by-product. Already such work is done in the grades. It remains only to enlarge it and relate it to the proper sciences as the later years of school life are reached.
According to the principle of overjustification, what is the likely result over time of immediately assigning jobs and careers to people based on areas of initial interest?
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The principle of overjustification states that when an external incentive, such as money, is applied to a task, the internal motivation decreases. For example, a boy that loves to build birdhouses for fun will begin to enjoy the task less and less as he is paid for them. In the context of careers, overjustification would suggest that an interest in a given area would decrease over time, leading to a decrease in job satisfaction.
The principle of overjustification states that when an external incentive, such as money, is applied to a task, the internal motivation decreases. For example, a boy that loves to build birdhouses for fun will begin to enjoy the task less and less as he is paid for them. In the context of careers, overjustification would suggest that an interest in a given area would decrease over time, leading to a decrease in job satisfaction.
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Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At the end of his experience at the dog pound, Nate has grown to love the feeling of helping dogs. He feels positive about his individual worth. Nate has experienced a change in which of the following?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At the end of his experience at the dog pound, Nate has grown to love the feeling of helping dogs. He feels positive about his individual worth. Nate has experienced a change in which of the following?
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Nate’s increase in self-worth directly correlates with “self-esteem,” or the belief that one’s self is important or valuable. “Self-efficacy” usually refers to one’s confidence in accomplishing a certain task. “Self-concept” is an idea of how someone internally defines himself or herself, or what sets that individual apart from others.
Nate’s increase in self-worth directly correlates with “self-esteem,” or the belief that one’s self is important or valuable. “Self-efficacy” usually refers to one’s confidence in accomplishing a certain task. “Self-concept” is an idea of how someone internally defines himself or herself, or what sets that individual apart from others.
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The idea of the looking-glass self suggests that a person's sense of self results from the perception of others. The sociological theory that best aligns with this idea is which of the following?
The idea of the looking-glass self suggests that a person's sense of self results from the perception of others. The sociological theory that best aligns with this idea is which of the following?
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"Symbolic interactionism" states that meaning is a social product derived from interaction with others, and is the framework for the looking-glass self posited by Charles Cooley. On the other hand, "conflict theory" describes power and social stability, while the "labeling theory" examines the influence of terms attached to individuals. Last, "social constructionism" looks at the ways in which social realities are created by groups and individuals. It does not describe a person's self-identity.
"Symbolic interactionism" states that meaning is a social product derived from interaction with others, and is the framework for the looking-glass self posited by Charles Cooley. On the other hand, "conflict theory" describes power and social stability, while the "labeling theory" examines the influence of terms attached to individuals. Last, "social constructionism" looks at the ways in which social realities are created by groups and individuals. It does not describe a person's self-identity.
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Which of the examples below is an example of social cognitive theory?
Which of the examples below is an example of social cognitive theory?
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The correct answer is the example about choosing fruit over chocolate pudding, because the positive example was modeled. The examples about drawing on the wall or logging workouts relate to systems of rewards and punishments, not modeling. The example concerning the whistle is about conditioning, not modeling. Finally, the example about the muscle is an interesting metaphor, but it is not relevant here. In fact, once certain patterns of behavior are established through modeling, they may remain intact without continuing the modeling, as would be required by this example.
The correct answer is the example about choosing fruit over chocolate pudding, because the positive example was modeled. The examples about drawing on the wall or logging workouts relate to systems of rewards and punishments, not modeling. The example concerning the whistle is about conditioning, not modeling. Finally, the example about the muscle is an interesting metaphor, but it is not relevant here. In fact, once certain patterns of behavior are established through modeling, they may remain intact without continuing the modeling, as would be required by this example.
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Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
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The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
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Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
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The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
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Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
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The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
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Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The boys take the dogs out to exercise twice every week. When it is time to go, they open the door and call the dogs to come back inside. If the dogs return without additional coaxing, then they get a treat. If the boys have to go get the dogs, then the animals do not get a treat. How would a researcher in operant behavior describe this practice?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The boys take the dogs out to exercise twice every week. When it is time to go, they open the door and call the dogs to come back inside. If the dogs return without additional coaxing, then they get a treat. If the boys have to go get the dogs, then the animals do not get a treat. How would a researcher in operant behavior describe this practice?
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The boys are applying a stimulus to encourage good behavior (i.e. positive reinforcement). It may appear that they are also taking away a stimulus to discourage bad behavior (i.e. negative reinforcement); however, in this situation, it must be one or the other, not both. Since the “normal condition” is no treat, the treat is an added stimulus. The poor behaving dogs are not subject to removal of something good, but rather the normal condition. Positive punishment would be correct if the boys physically hurt the dogs that did not obey. Negative reinforcement would be correct if the boys took away something (e.g. a shock collar) from the dogs that came in on time.
The boys are applying a stimulus to encourage good behavior (i.e. positive reinforcement). It may appear that they are also taking away a stimulus to discourage bad behavior (i.e. negative reinforcement); however, in this situation, it must be one or the other, not both. Since the “normal condition” is no treat, the treat is an added stimulus. The poor behaving dogs are not subject to removal of something good, but rather the normal condition. Positive punishment would be correct if the boys physically hurt the dogs that did not obey. Negative reinforcement would be correct if the boys took away something (e.g. a shock collar) from the dogs that came in on time.
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Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At feeding time, Jimmy rings a bell and the dogs immediately go to the feeding station. While Jimmy is away on vacation for two months, Nate rings the bell at many different times other than mealtime. When Jimmy returns and rings the bell, the dogs look up, but do not go to the feeding station. Which of the following best describes this situation?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At feeding time, Jimmy rings a bell and the dogs immediately go to the feeding station. While Jimmy is away on vacation for two months, Nate rings the bell at many different times other than mealtime. When Jimmy returns and rings the bell, the dogs look up, but do not go to the feeding station. Which of the following best describes this situation?
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When a stimulus is applied without the corresponding response, the actions learned through operational conditioning can be lost (i.e. “extinction”). In this case, the dogs were originally rewarded with food every time the bell rang. When Nate rang the bell and did not feed them, they subconsciously disconnected the two events.
The other choices are incorrect. “Reductionism” describes how oversimplification (especially those related to human processes) can lead to a loss of meaning by looking past complexities. “Weber's law of perception” is a method of describing the maximum amount of stimulus that can be applied without a subject noticing. Last, “symbolic interactionism” is a sociological theory which states that peoples interactions are based on symbolic meanings of gestures, objects, and titles
When a stimulus is applied without the corresponding response, the actions learned through operational conditioning can be lost (i.e. “extinction”). In this case, the dogs were originally rewarded with food every time the bell rang. When Nate rang the bell and did not feed them, they subconsciously disconnected the two events.
The other choices are incorrect. “Reductionism” describes how oversimplification (especially those related to human processes) can lead to a loss of meaning by looking past complexities. “Weber's law of perception” is a method of describing the maximum amount of stimulus that can be applied without a subject noticing. Last, “symbolic interactionism” is a sociological theory which states that peoples interactions are based on symbolic meanings of gestures, objects, and titles
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A young girl does not want to eat her spinach at dinner. She knows that if she does not eat her spinach, her father will not let her leave the table. In response, the girl gives her spinach to the family's dog under the table while her father is not looking. This is an example of which of the following?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A young girl does not want to eat her spinach at dinner. She knows that if she does not eat her spinach, her father will not let her leave the table. In response, the girl gives her spinach to the family's dog under the table while her father is not looking. This is an example of which of the following?
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"Avoidance" refers to someone performing a behavior in order to avoid a negative stimulus. In this case, the young girl is avoiding the negative stimulus (i.e. not being allowed to leave the dinner table) by giving her spinach to the dog. "Escape" is similar to avoidance, except that it involves engaging in a behavior to get away, or stop a negative stimulus, as opposed to avoiding that stimulus altogether. Finally, "acquisition" and "extinction" refer to processes related to conditioning and a loss of a conditioned response, respectively.
"Avoidance" refers to someone performing a behavior in order to avoid a negative stimulus. In this case, the young girl is avoiding the negative stimulus (i.e. not being allowed to leave the dinner table) by giving her spinach to the dog. "Escape" is similar to avoidance, except that it involves engaging in a behavior to get away, or stop a negative stimulus, as opposed to avoiding that stimulus altogether. Finally, "acquisition" and "extinction" refer to processes related to conditioning and a loss of a conditioned response, respectively.
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, he created a "Skinner box" that he used to learn about the behaviors of rats. In one experiment, when a rat pressed a lever in the box, a food pellet dropped down. Which of the following best describes how the rat initially learned to press the lever?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, he created a "Skinner box" that he used to learn about the behaviors of rats. In one experiment, when a rat pressed a lever in the box, a food pellet dropped down. Which of the following best describes how the rat initially learned to press the lever?
Tap to reveal answer
In Skinner's famous experiment, the rats ran around in their boxes, and accidentally pressed the lever by "random chance," which made a food pellet drop down. "Observational learning" is a term used to describe learning through imitating others, and is unlikely to occur between different species. Finally, based on the example, we have no reason to believe that any sort of punishment is occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, the rats ran around in their boxes, and accidentally pressed the lever by "random chance," which made a food pellet drop down. "Observational learning" is a term used to describe learning through imitating others, and is unlikely to occur between different species. Finally, based on the example, we have no reason to believe that any sort of punishment is occurring.
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Which type of reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Which type of reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences?
Tap to reveal answer
Immediately, both answer choices with the word "fixed" can be eliminated because the problem states that reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Additionally, a "variable-interval" schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an inconsistent amount of time, rather than occurrences. Finally, as the questions asks, a "variable-ratio" schedule is one in which reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences.
Immediately, both answer choices with the word "fixed" can be eliminated because the problem states that reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Additionally, a "variable-interval" schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an inconsistent amount of time, rather than occurrences. Finally, as the questions asks, a "variable-ratio" schedule is one in which reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences.
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A man wants to teach his puppy to sit. In order to teach the dog, the man tells the puppy "sit" and rewards her with a treat each time she does so successfully. Eventually, he also uses a hand signal while saying the word "sit." After some time, the dog begins to respond to both the word "sit" and to the hand signal. In this example, which of the following can be considered a secondary reinforcer?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A man wants to teach his puppy to sit. In order to teach the dog, the man tells the puppy "sit" and rewards her with a treat each time she does so successfully. Eventually, he also uses a hand signal while saying the word "sit." After some time, the dog begins to respond to both the word "sit" and to the hand signal. In this example, which of the following can be considered a secondary reinforcer?
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A secondary reinforcer is learned; therefore, it has no innately desirable attributes. On the other hand, a primary reinforcer is innately pleasing. In this example, the treat is innately pleasing to the dog, and is the primary reinforcer. Both the word "sit", and the hand signal have been paired to each other, as well as to the treat. Because they have been paired to the treat (i.e. the primary reinforcer) they have become secondary reinforcers.
A secondary reinforcer is learned; therefore, it has no innately desirable attributes. On the other hand, a primary reinforcer is innately pleasing. In this example, the treat is innately pleasing to the dog, and is the primary reinforcer. Both the word "sit", and the hand signal have been paired to each other, as well as to the treat. Because they have been paired to the treat (i.e. the primary reinforcer) they have become secondary reinforcers.
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Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
According to the author, life on a farm can be extremely based around the family. It is in the family that most children learn morals from their parents. Kohlberg described several stages of moral development. In which of the following stages are most adults found?
Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
According to the author, life on a farm can be extremely based around the family. It is in the family that most children learn morals from their parents. Kohlberg described several stages of moral development. In which of the following stages are most adults found?
Tap to reveal answer
Most adults and adolescents are found on the conventional stage of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning. In this stage, people generally follow the rules because they believe it will benefit themselves and the society more than breaking the rules. Those in the post-conventional stage follow the rules based solely on their moral ideas of right and wrong, not necessarily the consequences. Most people do not reach this stage. Children are found in the pre-conventional stage. The concrete operational stage is part of Piaget’s stages of development.
Most adults and adolescents are found on the conventional stage of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning. In this stage, people generally follow the rules because they believe it will benefit themselves and the society more than breaking the rules. Those in the post-conventional stage follow the rules based solely on their moral ideas of right and wrong, not necessarily the consequences. Most people do not reach this stage. Children are found in the pre-conventional stage. The concrete operational stage is part of Piaget’s stages of development.
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
Tap to reveal answer
Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
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Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
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The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
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Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
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The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
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Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
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The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
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