Associative Learning - MCAT Psychological and Social Foundations
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Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
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When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
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The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.
The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.
Alice's dog hates vacuum cleaners. He has been conditioned to bark every time she opens the closet door, because usually this means she will begin vacuuming. She begins storing her shoes in the closet and keeps the vacuum in the basement; however, he continues to bark when she opens the closet door. Consider the given processes associated with the scenario.
Process A
If Alice continues to open the closet door without beginning to vacuum, then eventually the dog will stop barking.
Process B
If Alice then stops using the closet altogether for several months, and then suddenly opens it again, the dog will begin barking.
What are the two processes (A and B) that best describe this scenario?
Alice's dog hates vacuum cleaners. He has been conditioned to bark every time she opens the closet door, because usually this means she will begin vacuuming. She begins storing her shoes in the closet and keeps the vacuum in the basement; however, he continues to bark when she opens the closet door. Consider the given processes associated with the scenario.
Process A
If Alice continues to open the closet door without beginning to vacuum, then eventually the dog will stop barking.
Process B
If Alice then stops using the closet altogether for several months, and then suddenly opens it again, the dog will begin barking.
What are the two processes (A and B) that best describe this scenario?
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The process of repeatedly seeing the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the opening of the closet door) without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., vacuuming) is extinction. The dog has stopped associating the opening of the closet door with the frightening vacuum.
If the subject is not exposed to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. opening the closet door) for a period of time (e.g. several months, though this could be shorter or longer depending on the situation) and then is suddenly re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus, then spontaneous recovery can occur. The conditioned response suddenly occurs again when exposed to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, Alice opens the door several months later and the dog barks again. If she continues to open the door again, without using the vacuum, the extinction process will occur again.
“Acquisition” is the initial process of conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus (e.g. opening of the closet door) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. vacuuming). “Generalization” is when similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus trigger the conditioned response. For example, if the dog began barking when Alice opened any door. “Discrimination” is when only the specific conditioned stimulus triggers the conditioned response (i.e. only the opening of the closet door, not any other, door) elicits the barking.
The process of repeatedly seeing the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the opening of the closet door) without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., vacuuming) is extinction. The dog has stopped associating the opening of the closet door with the frightening vacuum.
If the subject is not exposed to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. opening the closet door) for a period of time (e.g. several months, though this could be shorter or longer depending on the situation) and then is suddenly re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus, then spontaneous recovery can occur. The conditioned response suddenly occurs again when exposed to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, Alice opens the door several months later and the dog barks again. If she continues to open the door again, without using the vacuum, the extinction process will occur again.
“Acquisition” is the initial process of conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus (e.g. opening of the closet door) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. vacuuming). “Generalization” is when similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus trigger the conditioned response. For example, if the dog began barking when Alice opened any door. “Discrimination” is when only the specific conditioned stimulus triggers the conditioned response (i.e. only the opening of the closet door, not any other, door) elicits the barking.
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
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When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
The passage describes classical conditioning, which of the following best describes the relationship between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
The passage describes classical conditioning, which of the following best describes the relationship between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
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Classical conditioning, as described in the passage, pairs a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a bell) with another behavior (e.g. receiving food). Eventually, according to the precepts of classical conditioning the bell will elicit a response (e.g. salivating in anticipation of receiving food). On the other hand, operant conditioning is a type of learning that is mediated by punishments and rewards/reinforcements. The punishment or reinforcement either encourages or discourages the learner from repeating a certain behavior.
Classical conditioning, as described in the passage, pairs a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a bell) with another behavior (e.g. receiving food). Eventually, according to the precepts of classical conditioning the bell will elicit a response (e.g. salivating in anticipation of receiving food). On the other hand, operant conditioning is a type of learning that is mediated by punishments and rewards/reinforcements. The punishment or reinforcement either encourages or discourages the learner from repeating a certain behavior.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of generalization, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of generalization, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
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According to the idea of generalization, a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response. If this hamster has generalized the stimulus, then he will recognize the knock on his cage as being similar (or the same) as the flick on his cage. As a result, we can expect the hamster to run to his food dish in anticipation of being fed. If the hamster ignored the stimulus, then that would be a good example of discrimination, not generalization. Additionally, while it is possible, we have no reason to believe that the hamster would become fearful or would run on his wheel based on the idea of generalization.
According to the idea of generalization, a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response. If this hamster has generalized the stimulus, then he will recognize the knock on his cage as being similar (or the same) as the flick on his cage. As a result, we can expect the hamster to run to his food dish in anticipation of being fed. If the hamster ignored the stimulus, then that would be a good example of discrimination, not generalization. Additionally, while it is possible, we have no reason to believe that the hamster would become fearful or would run on his wheel based on the idea of generalization.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of discrimination, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of discrimination, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
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According to the idea of discrimination, a conditioned stimulus can be distinguished from other stimuli. If the hamster has been able to discriminate, then it is likely that he will ignore the knock on the cage, and recognize that the knock sound is not the same as a flick sound. On the other hand, if the hamster generalizes the stimulus, then he will respond to the knock in the same way that he responds to the flick, and run to his food dish. Based on the idea of discrimination_,_ we have no reason to expect the hamster to run on his wheel, or to try to escape in fear.
According to the idea of discrimination, a conditioned stimulus can be distinguished from other stimuli. If the hamster has been able to discriminate, then it is likely that he will ignore the knock on the cage, and recognize that the knock sound is not the same as a flick sound. On the other hand, if the hamster generalizes the stimulus, then he will respond to the knock in the same way that he responds to the flick, and run to his food dish. Based on the idea of discrimination_,_ we have no reason to expect the hamster to run on his wheel, or to try to escape in fear.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
In the example of Pavlov's dogs, which of the following could be considered as the neutral stimulus?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
In the example of Pavlov's dogs, which of the following could be considered as the neutral stimulus?
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The neutral stimulus is defined as the stimulus that does not initially elicit a response. After conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus turns into the conditioned stimulus. In this example, the metronome initially elicited no response; however, it elicited the response of salivation, post conditioning. The dogs did not salivate prior to conditioning, and after conditioning the salivation can be considered a conditioned response.
The neutral stimulus is defined as the stimulus that does not initially elicit a response. After conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus turns into the conditioned stimulus. In this example, the metronome initially elicited no response; however, it elicited the response of salivation, post conditioning. The dogs did not salivate prior to conditioning, and after conditioning the salivation can be considered a conditioned response.
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
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Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
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The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
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The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
Joey hates cleaning his room. When his father asks him to clean up, he throws a tantrum. As a result, his father—wanting the tantrum to end—gives up and allows him to continue playing instead of cleaning.
The next day Joey's mom walks towards his room, and he anticipates that she is going to ask him to clean his room. As she enters the room, he quickly pretends he isn't feeling well and asks if he can lie down to watch television and she reluctantly agrees.
What are the two types of operant conditioning demonstrated in the given scenario?
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The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
The first example demonstrates escape conditioning. Once presented with the aversive stimulus (i.e. being asked to clean his room), Joey learns that a particular behavior (i.e. throwing a tantrum) will allow him to escape from the aversive stimulus.
The second example demonstrates active avoidance conditioning. In this situation, Joey anticipates the aversive stimulus (i.e. he hears his mother walking towards his messy room). He learns that a particular behavior (i.e. faking illness) will allow him to avoid the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Both are subtypes of negative reinforcement, which is a type of operant conditioning not classical conditioning. Joey's behaviors are being encouraged through the removal of an unwanted stimulus—cleaning his room.
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The boys take the dogs out to exercise twice every week. When it is time to go, they open the door and call the dogs to come back inside. If the dogs return without additional coaxing, then they get a treat. If the boys have to go get the dogs, then the animals do not get a treat. How would a researcher in operant behavior describe this practice?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
The boys take the dogs out to exercise twice every week. When it is time to go, they open the door and call the dogs to come back inside. If the dogs return without additional coaxing, then they get a treat. If the boys have to go get the dogs, then the animals do not get a treat. How would a researcher in operant behavior describe this practice?
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The boys are applying a stimulus to encourage good behavior (i.e. positive reinforcement). It may appear that they are also taking away a stimulus to discourage bad behavior (i.e. negative reinforcement); however, in this situation, it must be one or the other, not both. Since the “normal condition” is no treat, the treat is an added stimulus. The poor behaving dogs are not subject to removal of something good, but rather the normal condition. Positive punishment would be correct if the boys physically hurt the dogs that did not obey. Negative reinforcement would be correct if the boys took away something (e.g. a shock collar) from the dogs that came in on time.
The boys are applying a stimulus to encourage good behavior (i.e. positive reinforcement). It may appear that they are also taking away a stimulus to discourage bad behavior (i.e. negative reinforcement); however, in this situation, it must be one or the other, not both. Since the “normal condition” is no treat, the treat is an added stimulus. The poor behaving dogs are not subject to removal of something good, but rather the normal condition. Positive punishment would be correct if the boys physically hurt the dogs that did not obey. Negative reinforcement would be correct if the boys took away something (e.g. a shock collar) from the dogs that came in on time.
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At feeding time, Jimmy rings a bell and the dogs immediately go to the feeding station. While Jimmy is away on vacation for two months, Nate rings the bell at many different times other than mealtime. When Jimmy returns and rings the bell, the dogs look up, but do not go to the feeding station. Which of the following best describes this situation?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At feeding time, Jimmy rings a bell and the dogs immediately go to the feeding station. While Jimmy is away on vacation for two months, Nate rings the bell at many different times other than mealtime. When Jimmy returns and rings the bell, the dogs look up, but do not go to the feeding station. Which of the following best describes this situation?
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When a stimulus is applied without the corresponding response, the actions learned through operational conditioning can be lost (i.e. “extinction”). In this case, the dogs were originally rewarded with food every time the bell rang. When Nate rang the bell and did not feed them, they subconsciously disconnected the two events.
The other choices are incorrect. “Reductionism” describes how oversimplification (especially those related to human processes) can lead to a loss of meaning by looking past complexities. “Weber's law of perception” is a method of describing the maximum amount of stimulus that can be applied without a subject noticing. Last, “symbolic interactionism” is a sociological theory which states that peoples interactions are based on symbolic meanings of gestures, objects, and titles
When a stimulus is applied without the corresponding response, the actions learned through operational conditioning can be lost (i.e. “extinction”). In this case, the dogs were originally rewarded with food every time the bell rang. When Nate rang the bell and did not feed them, they subconsciously disconnected the two events.
The other choices are incorrect. “Reductionism” describes how oversimplification (especially those related to human processes) can lead to a loss of meaning by looking past complexities. “Weber's law of perception” is a method of describing the maximum amount of stimulus that can be applied without a subject noticing. Last, “symbolic interactionism” is a sociological theory which states that peoples interactions are based on symbolic meanings of gestures, objects, and titles
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A young girl does not want to eat her spinach at dinner. She knows that if she does not eat her spinach, her father will not let her leave the table. In response, the girl gives her spinach to the family's dog under the table while her father is not looking. This is an example of which of the following?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A young girl does not want to eat her spinach at dinner. She knows that if she does not eat her spinach, her father will not let her leave the table. In response, the girl gives her spinach to the family's dog under the table while her father is not looking. This is an example of which of the following?
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"Avoidance" refers to someone performing a behavior in order to avoid a negative stimulus. In this case, the young girl is avoiding the negative stimulus (i.e. not being allowed to leave the dinner table) by giving her spinach to the dog. "Escape" is similar to avoidance, except that it involves engaging in a behavior to get away, or stop a negative stimulus, as opposed to avoiding that stimulus altogether. Finally, "acquisition" and "extinction" refer to processes related to conditioning and a loss of a conditioned response, respectively.
"Avoidance" refers to someone performing a behavior in order to avoid a negative stimulus. In this case, the young girl is avoiding the negative stimulus (i.e. not being allowed to leave the dinner table) by giving her spinach to the dog. "Escape" is similar to avoidance, except that it involves engaging in a behavior to get away, or stop a negative stimulus, as opposed to avoiding that stimulus altogether. Finally, "acquisition" and "extinction" refer to processes related to conditioning and a loss of a conditioned response, respectively.
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, he created a "Skinner box" that he used to learn about the behaviors of rats. In one experiment, when a rat pressed a lever in the box, a food pellet dropped down. Which of the following best describes how the rat initially learned to press the lever?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, he created a "Skinner box" that he used to learn about the behaviors of rats. In one experiment, when a rat pressed a lever in the box, a food pellet dropped down. Which of the following best describes how the rat initially learned to press the lever?
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In Skinner's famous experiment, the rats ran around in their boxes, and accidentally pressed the lever by "random chance," which made a food pellet drop down. "Observational learning" is a term used to describe learning through imitating others, and is unlikely to occur between different species. Finally, based on the example, we have no reason to believe that any sort of punishment is occurring.
In Skinner's famous experiment, the rats ran around in their boxes, and accidentally pressed the lever by "random chance," which made a food pellet drop down. "Observational learning" is a term used to describe learning through imitating others, and is unlikely to occur between different species. Finally, based on the example, we have no reason to believe that any sort of punishment is occurring.
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Which type of reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Which type of reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences?
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Immediately, both answer choices with the word "fixed" can be eliminated because the problem states that reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Additionally, a "variable-interval" schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an inconsistent amount of time, rather than occurrences. Finally, as the questions asks, a "variable-ratio" schedule is one in which reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences.
Immediately, both answer choices with the word "fixed" can be eliminated because the problem states that reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Additionally, a "variable-interval" schedule refers to reinforcement occurring after an inconsistent amount of time, rather than occurrences. Finally, as the questions asks, a "variable-ratio" schedule is one in which reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of behavioral occurrences.
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A man wants to teach his puppy to sit. In order to teach the dog, the man tells the puppy "sit" and rewards her with a treat each time she does so successfully. Eventually, he also uses a hand signal while saying the word "sit." After some time, the dog begins to respond to both the word "sit" and to the hand signal. In this example, which of the following can be considered a secondary reinforcer?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
A man wants to teach his puppy to sit. In order to teach the dog, the man tells the puppy "sit" and rewards her with a treat each time she does so successfully. Eventually, he also uses a hand signal while saying the word "sit." After some time, the dog begins to respond to both the word "sit" and to the hand signal. In this example, which of the following can be considered a secondary reinforcer?
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A secondary reinforcer is learned; therefore, it has no innately desirable attributes. On the other hand, a primary reinforcer is innately pleasing. In this example, the treat is innately pleasing to the dog, and is the primary reinforcer. Both the word "sit", and the hand signal have been paired to each other, as well as to the treat. Because they have been paired to the treat (i.e. the primary reinforcer) they have become secondary reinforcers.
A secondary reinforcer is learned; therefore, it has no innately desirable attributes. On the other hand, a primary reinforcer is innately pleasing. In this example, the treat is innately pleasing to the dog, and is the primary reinforcer. Both the word "sit", and the hand signal have been paired to each other, as well as to the treat. Because they have been paired to the treat (i.e. the primary reinforcer) they have become secondary reinforcers.
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
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When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
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The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.
The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.