MCAT Psychological Social Foundations Flashcards: 6b Problem Solving Decision Biases

What this deck covers

This deck focuses on 6b Problem Solving Decision Biases, giving you a quick way to review the definitions, rules, and examples that matter most for MCAT Psychological Social Foundations.

How to use these flashcards

Work through these flashcards in short sessions. Try to answer each prompt before flipping the card, then revisit any cards you miss until the explanation feels automatic.

Flashcard 1: Identify the bias: a person revises an estimate toward an initial number they first saw.

Answer: Anchoring bias. Initial values bias subsequent adjustments.

Flashcard 2: What is the hindsight bias?

Answer: Seeing outcomes as predictable after they have occurred. Memory reconstructs past uncertainty as certainty.

Flashcard 3: What is a heuristic in problem solving?

Answer: A quick rule-of-thumb strategy that is efficient but error-prone. Mental shortcuts save time but can lead to systematic errors.

Flashcard 4: What is anchoring and adjustment bias?

Answer: Overreliance on an initial value and insufficient adjustment from it. First information disproportionately influences subsequent judgments.

Flashcard 5: What does prospect theory predict about losses versus gains of equal size?

Answer: Losses are weighted more heavily than equivalent gains (loss aversion). People feel losses about twice as strongly as gains.

Flashcard 6: What is the difference between trial-and-error and the means-end analysis strategy?

Answer: Trial-and-error is unsystematic; means-end reduces differences via subgoals. Means-end is systematic, breaking problems into manageable steps.

Flashcard 7: What is base rate neglect?

Answer: Ignoring population prevalence when estimating probability. Specific details overshadow general frequency information.

Flashcard 8: What is the mental set bias in problem solving?

Answer: Tendency to use a familiar strategy even when it is not optimal. Prior successful strategies create inertia, impeding adaptation to new problems requiring alternative approaches.

Flashcard 9: What is hindsight bias?

Answer: After learning outcomes, viewing them as having been predictable. Knowledge of results creates illusion of foresight.

Flashcard 10: What is base rate neglect?

Answer: Ignoring population prevalence when estimating probability. Statistical error that leads to overestimating rare events.

Flashcard 11: What is the gambler's fallacy?

Answer: Belief that independent random events are influenced by recent outcomes. Misunderstanding that each event has independent probability.

Flashcard 12: Which bias best fits: continuing a failing project because you already spent money on it?

Answer: Sunk cost fallacy. Past investment irrationally drives future commitment.

Flashcard 13: What is the overconfidence bias in decision-making?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or predictions. People systematically underestimate their uncertainty.

Flashcard 14: What is base rate neglect?

Answer: Ignoring population frequencies when estimating probability. Specific details overshadow general statistical information.

Flashcard 15: What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic in problem solving?

Answer: Algorithm: guaranteed method; heuristic: quick shortcut, not guaranteed. Algorithms follow systematic steps; heuristics use mental shortcuts.

Flashcard 16: What is the overconfidence bias?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments. Metacognitive error in assessing one's own abilities.

Flashcard 17: What is the overconfidence bias?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's judgments or knowledge. Metacognitive error in assessing one's own competence.

Flashcard 18: What is the overconfidence effect?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's judgments or knowledge. People think they're more accurate than they actually are.

Flashcard 19: What is the framing effect, and what aspect of presentation drives it?

Answer: Choices change with wording; driven by gain vs loss framing. Risk-seeking for losses, risk-averse for gains.

Flashcard 20: What is hindsight bias?

Answer: Viewing outcomes as predictable after they have occurred. Makes past events seem more predictable than they actually were.

Flashcard 21: Identify the bias: refusing to change a view after the supporting evidence is retracted.

Answer: Belief perseverance. Commitment to disproven beliefs shows cognitive rigidity.

Flashcard 22: What does prospect theory predict about losses versus gains of equal size?

Answer: Losses are weighted more than equivalent gains (loss aversion). People feel losses about twice as strongly as equivalent gains.

Flashcard 23: What is anchoring bias in judgment?

Answer: Relying too heavily on an initial value when making estimates. First information disproportionately shapes subsequent judgments.

Flashcard 24: Identify the bias: A juror is swayed by the first number mentioned in negotiations.

Answer: Anchoring and adjustment bias. Initial values unduly influence final estimates.

Flashcard 25: What is trial-and-error problem solving?

Answer: Attempting multiple solutions until one works, without systematic strategy. This approach tests options randomly or sequentially until success, lacking a structured plan but effective for limited possibilities.

Flashcard 26: What is functional fixedness in problem solving?

Answer: Inability to see an object being used for a new function. Limits creative problem-solving by restricting perceived uses.

Flashcard 27: Which bias best fits: concluding a quiet person is a librarian while ignoring base rates?

Answer: Representativeness heuristic (base rate neglect). Stereotype fits, so statistical rarity is ignored.

Flashcard 28: Identify the bias: estimating plane-crash risk as high after news coverage.

Answer: Availability heuristic. Media coverage makes rare events seem more probable.

Flashcard 29: What is the base rate fallacy?

Answer: Ignoring prior probabilities (base rates) when evaluating likelihood. Occurs when specific information overshadows general statistics.

Flashcard 30: What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

Answer: Algorithm guarantees solution; heuristic is faster but error-prone. Algorithms methodically ensure accuracy, whereas heuristics prioritize speed via approximations, risking inaccuracies.

Flashcard 31: What is anchoring bias?

Answer: Relying too heavily on an initial value when making estimates. First information disproportionately influences subsequent judgments.

Flashcard 32: What is a mental set in problem solving?

Answer: A tendency to use previously successful strategies even when inappropriate. Past success creates cognitive rigidity that blocks new approaches.

Flashcard 33: What is overconfidence bias?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's judgments or knowledge. People systematically overrate their abilities and predictions.

Flashcard 34: What is confirmation bias in decision-making?

Answer: Seeking or interpreting evidence that supports existing beliefs. Leads to ignoring contradictory evidence and cherry-picking data.

Flashcard 35: What is anchoring bias?

Answer: Relying too heavily on an initial value when making estimates. First information disproportionately influences subsequent judgments.

Flashcard 36: What is an algorithm in problem solving?

Answer: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution if one exists. Like a recipe, it follows exact steps to reach the answer.

Flashcard 37: According to prospect theory, which feels larger: losing $100 or gaining $100?

Answer: Losing $100 feels larger (loss aversion). People feel losses about twice as strongly as equivalent gains.

Flashcard 38: What is the anchoring effect?

Answer: Overreliance on an initial value when making estimates. First information disproportionately influences judgment.

Flashcard 39: What is the conjunction fallacy?

Answer: Belief that $P(A\cap B) > P(A)$, which is impossible. This error defies probability axioms, as joint events cannot have higher likelihood than individual components.

Flashcard 40: Identify the bias: despite new data, a researcher interprets results to fit the original hypothesis.

Answer: Confirmation bias. Selective focus on supportive data preserves initial theories, biasing interpretation of new information.

Flashcard 41: What is anchoring bias?

Answer: Relying too heavily on an initial value when making subsequent judgments. Initial information sets a reference point, insufficiently adjusted in subsequent estimates despite irrelevance.

Flashcard 42: What is hindsight bias?

Answer: After outcomes occur, believing one "knew it all along". Retrospective distortion reconstructs past beliefs, exaggerating foreseeability after event knowledge.

Flashcard 43: What is confirmation bias in decision-making?

Answer: Seeking or interpreting information to support an existing belief. Cherry-picking evidence that confirms what you already think.

Flashcard 44: Identify the bias: You only read articles supporting your preferred treatment option.

Answer: Confirmation bias. Selective attention to confirming evidence while ignoring disconfirming data.

Flashcard 45: What is anchoring and adjustment in judgment?

Answer: Relying heavily on an initial value and insufficiently adjusting from it. First information disproportionately influences all subsequent judgments.

Flashcard 46: What is the framing effect in decision-making?

Answer: Choices change depending on gain-versus-loss presentation. Same outcomes valued differently based on wording as gains/losses.

Flashcard 47: Identify the bias: A person keeps gambling to "recover" money already lost.

Answer: Sunk cost fallacy. Throwing good money after bad due to prior losses.

Flashcard 48: What is the overconfidence bias?

Answer: Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments. Metacognitive error leads to poor calibration of certainty.

Flashcard 49: What is the framing effect?

Answer: Choices change depending on whether outcomes are framed as gains or losses. Same outcome valued differently based on gain vs. loss presentation.

Flashcard 50: What is the representativeness heuristic in decision-making?

Answer: Judging probability by similarity to a prototype or stereotype. Ignores base rates in favor of stereotypical features.

Flashcard 51: Identify the bias: A clinician ignores prevalence and diagnoses by "typical" symptoms.

Answer: Representativeness heuristic (base-rate neglect). Ignoring statistical prevalence when judging by similarity.

Flashcard 52: Identify the bias: Concluding a quiet person is a librarian despite low librarian prevalence.

Answer: Representativeness heuristic (base rate neglect). Stereotypical match ignores statistical base rates.

Flashcard 53: What is prospect theory's core claim about losses versus gains of equal magnitude?

Answer: Losses are weighted more heavily than equivalent gains. Psychological pain of loss exceeds pleasure of equal gain.

Flashcard 54: What is the availability heuristic in decision-making?

Answer: Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. Recent or vivid memories bias probability estimates.

Flashcard 55: What is loss aversion?

Answer: Losses are weighted more heavily than equivalent gains. Psychological asymmetry makes losses more impactful than gains.

Flashcard 56: What is the availability heuristic?

Answer: Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. Memory salience influences probability assessments, often overemphasizing vivid or recent events over statistical data.

Flashcard 57: Identify the bias: After buying a car, you notice that model "everywhere."

Answer: Frequency illusion (Baader–Meinhof phenomenon). Heightened awareness creates illusion of increased frequency.

Flashcard 58: Identify the bias: Ignoring base rates because a case "matches" a stereotype.

Answer: Representativeness heuristic. Stereotypes override statistical base rates in judgment.

Flashcard 59: What is an algorithm in problem solving?

Answer: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution when followed. Like a recipe, it provides exact steps that always work if followed correctly.

Flashcard 60: What is the framing effect in decision-making?

Answer: Choices change depending on whether outcomes are presented as gains or losses. Same information yields different decisions based on wording.

Flashcard 61: What is functional fixedness?

Answer: Inability to see an object's uses beyond its typical function. Cognitive bias that limits creative problem-solving approaches.

Flashcard 62: What is the hindsight bias?

Answer: After outcomes, perceiving events as having been predictable. Retrospective distortion makes outcomes seem inevitable.

Flashcard 63: What is a heuristic in problem solving?

Answer: A quick rule-of-thumb strategy that is efficient but error-prone. Mental shortcuts that save time but may lead to systematic errors.

Flashcard 64: What is loss aversion?

Answer: Tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains. Psychological weighting favors loss prevention, driving conservative choices to mitigate perceived greater negative impact.

Flashcard 65: What is belief perseverance?

Answer: Maintaining a belief despite clear contradictory evidence. Cognitive dissonance resistance preserves existing views.

Flashcard 66: What is confirmation bias?

Answer: Seeking or interpreting evidence to support an existing belief. Cognitive selectivity favors information aligning with preconceptions, ignoring contradictory evidence in evaluations.

Flashcard 67: What is a heuristic in problem solving?

Answer: A fast rule-of-thumb strategy that may not always be correct. Mental shortcuts that save time but can lead to errors.

Flashcard 68: What is anchoring and adjustment in estimation?

Answer: Relying on an initial value and insufficiently adjusting. First information disproportionately influences final estimates.

Flashcard 69: What is insight in problem solving?

Answer: A sudden realization of a solution after restructuring the problem. The "aha!" moment when pieces suddenly fit together.

Flashcard 70: What is hindsight bias?

Answer: Seeing past events as having been predictable after they occur. "I knew it all along" feeling after learning outcomes.

Flashcard 71: Identify the bias: After an exam, thinking the questions were obvious all along.

Answer: Hindsight bias. Outcome knowledge creates false sense of predictability.

Flashcard 72: What is confirmation bias when evaluating evidence for a belief or hypothesis?

Answer: Seeking or interpreting evidence that supports existing beliefs. Leads to ignoring disconfirming evidence systematically.

Flashcard 73: Identify the bias: You keep a failing project because you already spent $5000$.

Answer: Sunk cost fallacy. The $5000$ is gone regardless; only future costs/benefits matter.

Flashcard 74: What is an algorithm in problem solving?

Answer: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution if followed correctly. Systematic approach ensures completeness but may be time-consuming.

Flashcard 75: What is belief perseverance?

Answer: Maintaining a belief despite disconfirming evidence. Cognitive dissonance resistance protects self-concept.

Flashcard 76: What is the framing effect?

Answer: Decisions change depending on whether options are presented as gains or losses. Wording influences risk preferences in mathematically identical choices.

Flashcard 77: What does prospect theory predict about losses versus gains?

Answer: Losses loom larger than gains; people are more sensitive to losses. Asymmetric valuation in prospect theory heightens sensitivity to potential losses compared to equivalent gains.

Flashcard 78: Identify the bias: Assuming a coin is "due" for heads after many tails.

Answer: Gambler's fallacy. Misunderstanding independence in random sequences.

Flashcard 79: What is functional fixedness?

Answer: Failure to see an object can be used for a novel function. This cognitive barrier restricts innovation by limiting perceptions of objects to their conventional purposes.

Flashcard 80: What is a heuristic in problem solving?

Answer: A fast rule-of-thumb strategy that may be error-prone. Mental shortcuts that sacrifice accuracy for speed and efficiency.

Flashcard 81: Identify the bias: "I read only articles supporting my view and ignore opposing evidence."

Answer: Confirmation bias. Selective attention maintains existing beliefs.

Flashcard 82: Identify the bias: "I knew that would happen" after learning an outcome.

Answer: Hindsight bias. Retrospectively overestimating predictability of past events.

Flashcard 83: What is the representativeness heuristic?

Answer: Judging probability by similarity to a prototype, often ignoring base rates. Similarity to stereotypes guides judgments, frequently disregarding actual prevalence or base rate information.

Flashcard 84: Identify the bias: After the exam, you say you "knew it all along."

Answer: Hindsight bias. Retroactively overestimating your ability to predict the outcome.

Flashcard 85: Identify the bias: valuing a mug more once you own it than before you owned it.

Answer: Endowment effect. Ownership increases perceived value through loss aversion.

Flashcard 86: What is functional fixedness?

Answer: Failure to see an object's possible uses beyond its typical function. Limits creative problem-solving by constraining perceived options.

Flashcard 87: Identify the bias: a clinician overestimates a disorder after seeing several recent cases.

Answer: Availability heuristic. Recent instances heighten perceived prevalence, distorting risk assessments via memory accessibility.

Flashcard 88: Which bias best explains refusing to change a diagnosis despite new lab results?

Answer: Belief perseverance. Clinging to initial diagnosis despite contradictory evidence.

Flashcard 89: What is insight (the "Aha" experience) in problem solving?

Answer: A sudden realization of a solution after restructuring the problem. Often occurs when viewing the problem from a new perspective.

Flashcard 90: What is belief perseverance after disconfirming evidence is presented?

Answer: Maintaining a belief despite evidence that contradicts it. Cognitive dissonance drives resistance to changing views.

Flashcard 91: What is belief perseverance?

Answer: Maintaining a belief despite evidence that disconfirms it. Clinging to disproven beliefs because changing is psychologically costly.

Flashcard 92: What is base rate neglect?

Answer: Ignoring prior probabilities when estimating likelihoods. Specific details overshadow general statistical data, leading to flawed probability estimations in decision-making.

Flashcard 93: What is the conjunction fallacy?

Answer: Judging $P(A \cap B)$ as more likely than $P(A)$ alone. Violates basic probability: specifics can't be more likely than general.

Flashcard 94: Identify the bias: a physician judges a disease likely because recent cases were vivid.

Answer: Availability heuristic. Memorable cases distort probability estimates.

Flashcard 95: What is confirmation bias in decision-making?

Answer: Seeking or interpreting information to support existing beliefs. Selective attention reinforces preconceptions.

Flashcard 96: What is mental set in problem solving?

Answer: Tendency to use previously successful strategies even when inappropriate. Past solutions create cognitive inertia in new contexts.

Flashcard 97: What is the framing effect in decision-making?

Answer: Choices change depending on whether outcomes are presented as gains or losses. Wording influences risk perception and decision preferences.

Flashcard 98: Identify the bias: After an outcome, a student says, "I knew it would happen."

Answer: Hindsight bias. Retrospectively feeling outcomes were predictable.

Flashcard 99: What is loss aversion in prospect theory?

Answer: Losses are weighted more heavily than equivalent gains. People feel losses about twice as strongly as equivalent gains.

Flashcard 100: What is the conjunction fallacy in probability judgments?

Answer: Belief that $P(A \cap B) > P(A)$ or $P(B)$. Violates basic probability: conjunctions can't exceed single events.