Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table - MCAT Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems

Beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and strontium (Sr) are all alkaline earth metals with two valence electrons.

Rubidium (Rb) is an alkali metal and has only one valence electron.

Good insulators are usually non-metals, in which the electrons are not able to freely move. Insulators, unlike conductors, do not carry current. This is because charges cannot move freely in an insulating material, making this choice the correct answer.

Sound would travel slowest through an insulating material, as there is less ability to compress and propagate the sound wave. Copper is an example of a good conductor, and is a poor insulator.

Halogens are in the group next to the noble gasses. They have seven valence electrons, and therefore have a high electronegativity. The addition of only a single electron (production of an anion) generates a full valence octet.

Their diameters vary within the group. The diameter can be very small, like fluorine, or large, like iodine. They do not conduct electricity well, as they are non-metals.

Transition elements have multiple oxidation states because of the d-orbitals they possess. This allows them to lose or gain electrons in a variety of ways, often leading to the standard characteristics of metals, such as electrical conductivity. Lanthanides and actinides are less commonly tested, but also have the ability to form multiple oxidation states due to their large and variable orbitals. Ytterbium is one of the lanthanides, and has Yb(II) and Yb(III) oxidation states.

The correct answer is cobalt, since it is the only metal among the answer choices. Metals have all the properties described (malleability, ductility, and conductivity). Sulfur, boron, and silicon do not exhibit these properties to the same extent.

The halogens are the second to last column in the periodic table, meaning that they have an affinity for a single additional electron. Halogens would be most likely to react with alkali metals, which contain only one loosely bound electron in the valence shell. Alkali metals have very low ionization energy, readily losing an electron, while halogens have very high electronegativity, readily gaining an electron. This interaction allows the alkali metals to form ionic bonds with the halogens.

The properties described fit well with the noble gases. Alkali and alkaline earth elements are solid at room temperature, meaning that they have a high boiling point. Halogens can be gaseous at room temperature, but are very reactive. Noble gases have low boiling points and rarely act in spontaneous reactions. Their properties are due to their full valence shell, which is the source of their stability. Changes to their electron configuration (such as removing an electron) require large amounts of energy.

Alkali metals are much less dense than other metals due to their large radii, which results from having a single loosely bound valence electron. Some of the alkali metals have such low densities that they can float on water.

Atomic radius can be determined using the periodic trends. Atomic radius increases to the left of a period and down a group of the periodic table. Electronegativity, in contrast, increases to the right of a period and up a group of the periodic table. Relating the two, we can see that the greater the atomic radius, the weaker its electronegativity because the electrons are farther away from the nucleus and are unable to feel the attractive force of the protons in the nucleus.

Remember that electronegativity increases as you approach the top right corner of the periodic table. Since oxygen is the farthest right and the highest up on the perioidic table out of these choices, we conclude that it has the highest electronegativity.

The effective nuclear charge is the attractive charge a valence electron feels from the nucleus. As you move from left to right along a period, and more positive charges (protons) fill up the nucleus, the more attraction the valence electron feels. As you move down a group, you jump into the next electron shell, thus shielding the valence electrons from the inner positive charge, and decreasing the effective nuclear charge.

Because chlorine is in the same period as phosphorus and sodium, but has the most protons in its shell (the most right within the same period) it has the greatest effective nuclear charge. Additionally, because chlorine is in the same group as bromine, but is higher up on the periodic table, it has a greater effective nuclear charge, making it the correct answer.

Beryllium, calcium, strontium, and radium are all alkaline earth metals in the same group of the periodic table.

The electron affinity, a measure of the energy released when an atom gains an electron (an exothermic reaction), decreases from the top of a group (column) to the bottom. The trends in electron affinity can be correlated with ionization energy. When a smaller atom gains an electron, the force between the electron and nucleus is greater than in a larger atom; thus, more energy is released when this “bond” between the nucleus and electron is formed in a smaller atom than in a larger atom, meaning that smaller atoms will have greater electron affinity. Radium is the farthest down the group of alkaline earth metals, and will have the largest atomic radius of the answer choices, giving it the lowest electron affinity.

Sodium, aluminum, phosphorus, and chlorine are all in the same row (period) of the periodic table.

The electron affinity, a measure of the energy released when an atom gains an electron (an exothermic reaction), increases from left to right across the periodic table because when a smaller atom gains an electron, the force between the electron and nucleus is greater than with a larger atom. More energy is released when this “bond” between the nucleus and electron is formed. Chlorine has the smallest atomic radius of the answer choices because it is located farthest to the right of the period; thus, chlorine will also have the greatest attractive force between its nucleus and electrons, giving it the highest electron affinity.

Electronegativity, defined as the tendency of an atom to attract an electron, increases from left to right across a period, and the bottom of each group to the top. The most electronegative element is fluorine (F). This is because an electron that can be attracted to fluorine has the greatest ratio of attractive nuclear force to repulsive force by other electrons. Essentially, fluorine is the most stable ion with a negative-one charge. It is small, allowing the nuclear protons to maintain the attractive force on the electron, and it has an octet, giving it the absolute maximum ionic stability possible.

Electronegativity, defined as the tendency of an atom to attract an electron, increases from left to right across a period, and from the bottom of a group to top. The least electronegative (sometimes called most electropositive) element is francium (Fr). This is because an electron that can be attracted to francium has the lowest ratio of attractive nuclear force to repulsive force by other electrons in the atom. Essentially, the distance between the attractive nuclear protons is too great for the attractive force to overcome the repulsion of the orbiting electron cloud. Francium will not be stable if it gains an electron, and is much more stable if it loses an electron and forms an octet as a positive ion.

The correct answer is chlorine. The most electronegative elements are those in the upper right of the periodic table, with the exception of the noble gases. Electronegativity describes how easily an element will gain an electron. The halogens (second to last group) "want" an extra electron to complete their valence shell. Iodine and chlorine are both halogens. Chlorine, however, has a smaller atomic radius, and therefore a smaller distance between the protons and outer electrons. Chlorine thus has a stronger attraction for an additional electron due to the greater effective nuclear attraction.

The trend for atomic radius is to increase going from top to bottom, as additional valence shells are added to the atom. Out of the answer choices, rubidium has the highest energy valence shell.

With a single electron in the fifth energy level, krypton will have the highest number of energy levels of the group I elements listed.

When moving across a period, atomic radius will decrease as the number of protons increases. These protons increase the attraction between the high-energy electrons and the nucleus, effectively "shrinking" the electron cloud.

Noble gasses, like krypton, have a full octet in their valence shells. Their stability makes it very hard to alter their valence configuration. First ionization energy increases from left to right across the periodic table.

Bromine, which is right next to krypton, also has a high first ionization energy because it would much rather capture an electron than release one. As you move down the table, the energy for that first ionization gets lower, but as you move across from left to right it gets higher. Transition elements don't follow the trend exactly, but the energy required for them is not higher than halogens or noble gasses.

Alkali metals, like lithium, have the lowest first ionization energies because they obtain a full octet by releasing an electron.

This question refers to electron affinity, which is defined as the energy given off when a neutral atom in the gas phase gains an extra electron.

Electron affinity increases for elements towards the top and right of the periodic table, so the elements in the top right lose the most energy when gaining an electron. Another way of thinking is that they lose energy, but gain stability. Of the available answers, the element to the most upper right of the periodic table is fluorine.

Electronegativity is the tendency for an atom to attract electrons.

We know that fluorine is the most electronegative atom on the periodic table, and that electronegativity increases to the right across periods and upwards within groups. The trick answer might possible be potassium, since it has a very low electronegativity and is located to the left of the table. The noble gases, however, have virtually no electronegativity. Remember, noble gases are characterized by their valence octets in the ground state. This stability generates resistance to any electron change, including both electronegativity and ionization energy.