Cell Biology, Molecular Biology, and Genetics - MCAT Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Card 0 of 2944
Which of the following is not part of the Calvin cycle?
Which of the following is not part of the Calvin cycle?
ATP is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis by photosystem II. Carbon dioxide is fixed by combining with RuBP during calvin cycle. NAPDH donates electrons causing it to be oxdized to NADP+.
ATP is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis by photosystem II. Carbon dioxide is fixed by combining with RuBP during calvin cycle. NAPDH donates electrons causing it to be oxdized to NADP+.
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In 2013, scientists linked a cellular response called the unfolded protein response (UPR) to a series of neurodegenerative diseases, including such major health issues as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Disease. According to their work, the unfolded protein response is a reduction in translation as a result of a series of enzymes that modify a translation initiation factor, eIF2, as below:
In the above sequence, the unfolded protein sensor binds to unfolded protein, such as the pathogenic amyloid-beta found in the brains of Alzheimer’s Disease patients. This sensor then phosphorylates PERK, or protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase. This leads to downstream effects on eIF2, inhibition of which represses translation. It is thought that symptoms of neurodegenerative disease may be a result of this reduced translation.
Some evidence shows that the unfolded protein response can be promoted by an inflammatory state. Cytokines are released from cells exposed to stress, thus inducing the unfolded protein response in neighboring cells. Which of the following best defines this process?
In 2013, scientists linked a cellular response called the unfolded protein response (UPR) to a series of neurodegenerative diseases, including such major health issues as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Disease. According to their work, the unfolded protein response is a reduction in translation as a result of a series of enzymes that modify a translation initiation factor, eIF2, as below:
In the above sequence, the unfolded protein sensor binds to unfolded protein, such as the pathogenic amyloid-beta found in the brains of Alzheimer’s Disease patients. This sensor then phosphorylates PERK, or protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase. This leads to downstream effects on eIF2, inhibition of which represses translation. It is thought that symptoms of neurodegenerative disease may be a result of this reduced translation.
Some evidence shows that the unfolded protein response can be promoted by an inflammatory state. Cytokines are released from cells exposed to stress, thus inducing the unfolded protein response in neighboring cells. Which of the following best defines this process?
Paracrine signaling is the communication between neighboring cells, such as the process described in the question. Autocrine signaling is the use of chemical mediators to activate the same cell that secreted the mediator. Endocrine signaling is the use of chemical mediators to communicate with distant cell targets.
Isotype is not a form of signal, and refers to similar structures. Autologous tissues refer to tissues taken from the same individual, and is also not a form of signaling.
Paracrine signaling is the communication between neighboring cells, such as the process described in the question. Autocrine signaling is the use of chemical mediators to activate the same cell that secreted the mediator. Endocrine signaling is the use of chemical mediators to communicate with distant cell targets.
Isotype is not a form of signal, and refers to similar structures. Autologous tissues refer to tissues taken from the same individual, and is also not a form of signaling.
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Type 1 diabetes is a well-understood autoimmune disease. Autoimmune diseases result from an immune system-mediated attack on one’s own body tissues. In normal development, an organ called the thymus introduces immune cells to the body’s normal proteins. This process is called negative selection, as those immune cells that recognize normal proteins are deleted. If cells evade this process, those that recognize normal proteins enter into circulation, where they can attack body tissues. The thymus is also important for activating T-cells that recognize foreign proteins.
As the figure below shows, immune cells typically originate in the bone marrow. Some immune cells, called T-cells, then go to the thymus for negative selection. Those that survive negative selection, enter into general circulation to fight infection. Other cells, called B-cells, directly enter general circulation from the bone marrow. It is a breakdown in this carefully orchestrated process that leads to autoimmune disease, such as type 1 diabetes.
Unlike T-cells and B-cells, macrophages use phagocytosis and digestion as their principal functions. Macrophages are directed to the site of infection by chemical mediators, such as chemokines and cytokines. These mediators react with surface proteins on macrophages and induce intracellular changes, driving the macrophages to the site of infection. Which of the following is likely true of this form of cell signaling?
I. It is mediated by an intracellular second messenger
II. It exclusively mediates changes in gene expression in the macrophage
III. It drives intracellular changes to occur over several days or weeks
IV. It is an example of autocrine signaling
Type 1 diabetes is a well-understood autoimmune disease. Autoimmune diseases result from an immune system-mediated attack on one’s own body tissues. In normal development, an organ called the thymus introduces immune cells to the body’s normal proteins. This process is called negative selection, as those immune cells that recognize normal proteins are deleted. If cells evade this process, those that recognize normal proteins enter into circulation, where they can attack body tissues. The thymus is also important for activating T-cells that recognize foreign proteins.
As the figure below shows, immune cells typically originate in the bone marrow. Some immune cells, called T-cells, then go to the thymus for negative selection. Those that survive negative selection, enter into general circulation to fight infection. Other cells, called B-cells, directly enter general circulation from the bone marrow. It is a breakdown in this carefully orchestrated process that leads to autoimmune disease, such as type 1 diabetes.
Unlike T-cells and B-cells, macrophages use phagocytosis and digestion as their principal functions. Macrophages are directed to the site of infection by chemical mediators, such as chemokines and cytokines. These mediators react with surface proteins on macrophages and induce intracellular changes, driving the macrophages to the site of infection. Which of the following is likely true of this form of cell signaling?
I. It is mediated by an intracellular second messenger
II. It exclusively mediates changes in gene expression in the macrophage
III. It drives intracellular changes to occur over several days or weeks
IV. It is an example of autocrine signaling
The signaling system with chemokines and cytokines is an example of a paracrine signaling process, where nearby cells communicate with each other, rather than autocrine signaling, where a single cell releases a signal to itself. The attraction of macrophages to the site of infection must occur quickly, much faster than several days or weeks. It also must use a second messenger, which will likely have immediate cytosolic effects as well as effects on genetic expression, because it acts through a surface receptor on the macrophage.
The signaling system with chemokines and cytokines is an example of a paracrine signaling process, where nearby cells communicate with each other, rather than autocrine signaling, where a single cell releases a signal to itself. The attraction of macrophages to the site of infection must occur quickly, much faster than several days or weeks. It also must use a second messenger, which will likely have immediate cytosolic effects as well as effects on genetic expression, because it acts through a surface receptor on the macrophage.
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Listed below are events that occur during a signal transduction pathway.
I. The plasma membrane receptor interacts with an effector protein
II. Second messenger molecules are released
III. Ligand binds to the plasma membrane receptor
Which of the following lists these events in the correct order?
Listed below are events that occur during a signal transduction pathway.
I. The plasma membrane receptor interacts with an effector protein
II. Second messenger molecules are released
III. Ligand binds to the plasma membrane receptor
Which of the following lists these events in the correct order?
Signal transduction involves transmission of signals between cells. In a normal signal transduction pathway, a ligand (such as a hormone and neurotransmitter) binds to a cell membrane receptor on the extracellular side. Ligand binding initiates a response on the intracellular side. One such response includes the binding of the intracellular side to an effector protein. Binding of the receptor to an effector protein releases second messenger molecules that propagate and amplify the signal, often influencing transcription factors and gene expression.
There are several signal transduction pathways, but the ligand always binds to the extracellular side of the receptor and initiates a response on the intracellular side of the receptor.
Signal transduction involves transmission of signals between cells. In a normal signal transduction pathway, a ligand (such as a hormone and neurotransmitter) binds to a cell membrane receptor on the extracellular side. Ligand binding initiates a response on the intracellular side. One such response includes the binding of the intracellular side to an effector protein. Binding of the receptor to an effector protein releases second messenger molecules that propagate and amplify the signal, often influencing transcription factors and gene expression.
There are several signal transduction pathways, but the ligand always binds to the extracellular side of the receptor and initiates a response on the intracellular side of the receptor.
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The force generated by a muscle when it contracts involves muscle proteins within muscle cells, namely actin and myosin. Beginning with the arrival of an action potential from the motor neuron’s axon, muscles generate force through a cascade of electrical and biochemical events. The release of acetylcholine at the presynaptic membrane into the synaptic cleft is caused by the action potential which opens calcium 
channels. Temporary binding of neurotransmitter at the postsynaptic membrane with the muscle’s acetylcholine receptors leads to depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane and opening of calcium channels. Twisting of tropomyosin to expose myosin attachment sites on actin is the result of calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and binding to troponin molecules. two strands of protein, myosin and actin, attach to each other by forming a cross-bridge which allows them to slide relative to each other to shorten the muscle and generate force. When depolarization ends, 
is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and actin- myosin cross-bridges can no longer form resulting in relaxation.
When a motor neuron is electrically stimulated with a single impulse, a muscle innervated by that neuron produces a force called a twitch. Whereas the impulse might be 1 to 3msec in duration, the twitch is 10 to 100msec long. This is because it takes a long time for the 
to be pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When the rate of impulses is low, the twitches have time to relax (Figure 1A). When the rate of simulation is high, the twitches fuse and the force in the muscle sums (Figures 1B and 1C). Maximal tension in the muscle, a condition known as tetanus (Figure 1D), is generated when the frequency of action potential is raised to the point when all cross- bridge binding sites are continuously activated and force output no longer shows any ripples.
Figure 1
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a disease in which the number of acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junctions becomes greatly reduced. What is the expected difference between contraction of the muscle of the MG patient and that of a healthy person in response to stimulation by a neuron?
The force generated by a muscle when it contracts involves muscle proteins within muscle cells, namely actin and myosin. Beginning with the arrival of an action potential from the motor neuron’s axon, muscles generate force through a cascade of electrical and biochemical events. The release of acetylcholine at the presynaptic membrane into the synaptic cleft is caused by the action potential which opens calcium
When a motor neuron is electrically stimulated with a single impulse, a muscle innervated by that neuron produces a force called a twitch. Whereas the impulse might be 1 to 3msec in duration, the twitch is 10 to 100msec long. This is because it takes a long time for the
Figure 1
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a disease in which the number of acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junctions becomes greatly reduced. What is the expected difference between contraction of the muscle of the MG patient and that of a healthy person in response to stimulation by a neuron?
This question asks how the response of muscle of an MG patient would differ from the response of muscle of a healthy person to stimulation by a neuron. This is a question that can stand alone from the passage; no information or data from the passage is required to answer the question.
When acetylcholine binds its receptor on a muscle cell it produces a depolarization wave that opens 
channels in the plasma membrane and sarcoplasmic reticulum. As a result, 
flows out into the sarcoplasm where it stimulates the interaction of actin and myosin and the sliding of the filaments. Since a patient with myasthenia gravis will have a reduced number of functional acetylcholine receptors, the depolarization signal will be smaller, less 
will be released and fewer actin-myosin cross bridges will form. This sequence of events will result in the weaker contraction in the muscle of the myasthenia gravis patient. The number of troponin molecules bound to tropomyosin does not change during contraction. Troponin is bound to tropomyosin when the muscle is at rest. When 
is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, it binds to troponin and causes it to twist the tropomyosin enough to expose the actin myosin binding sites. Since troponin is bound to tropomyosin at rest and during contraction, there shouldn’t be any difference in the number of troponin-tropomyosin interactions in patients with myasthenia gravis as compared with normal individuals.
This question asks how the response of muscle of an MG patient would differ from the response of muscle of a healthy person to stimulation by a neuron. This is a question that can stand alone from the passage; no information or data from the passage is required to answer the question.
When acetylcholine binds its receptor on a muscle cell it produces a depolarization wave that opens
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Which organelle is primarily responsible for ATP production in eukaryotic cells?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for ATP production in eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion houses ATP synthase proteins, which generate molecular energy via oxidative phosphorylation. This is the primary source of cellular energy in the form of ATP.
Chloroplasts are another eukaryotic organelle involved in energy production. However, the primary function of the chloroplast is to use light energy to generate glucose from carbon dioxide. This glucose is then metabolized via cellular respiration, utilizing the mitochondria for the majority of ATP synthesis.
Eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion houses ATP synthase proteins, which generate molecular energy via oxidative phosphorylation. This is the primary source of cellular energy in the form of ATP.
Chloroplasts are another eukaryotic organelle involved in energy production. However, the primary function of the chloroplast is to use light energy to generate glucose from carbon dioxide. This glucose is then metabolized via cellular respiration, utilizing the mitochondria for the majority of ATP synthesis.
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Which of the following is true regarding a transmembrane receptor?
Which of the following is true regarding a transmembrane receptor?
A transmembrane receptor, by definition, is a molecule that is inserted into a membrane (such as the plasma membrane of the cell). Recall that a membrane found in a cell is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, which contains both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and hydrophilic (polar) regions. The hydrophobic regions are found on the inside and the hydrophilic regions are found facing either the cytoplasm or the extracellular space.
To insert into a phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane receptors must have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The hydrophobic portion of the receptor is found inside the hydrophobic core of the membrane and the hydrophilic iregion s found facing the cytoplasm or extracellular space. A ligand typically contacts a transmembrane receptor from the outside or from the cytoplasm; therefore, the ligand typically binds to the hydrophilic portion of the receptor.
A transmembrane receptor, by definition, is a molecule that is inserted into a membrane (such as the plasma membrane of the cell). Recall that a membrane found in a cell is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, which contains both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and hydrophilic (polar) regions. The hydrophobic regions are found on the inside and the hydrophilic regions are found facing either the cytoplasm or the extracellular space.
To insert into a phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane receptors must have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The hydrophobic portion of the receptor is found inside the hydrophobic core of the membrane and the hydrophilic iregion s found facing the cytoplasm or extracellular space. A ligand typically contacts a transmembrane receptor from the outside or from the cytoplasm; therefore, the ligand typically binds to the hydrophilic portion of the receptor.
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A type III secretion system is a mechanism several bacteria use to evade the immune system. They insert a syringe-like structure into a nearby host cell and secrete effector proteins that kill the host cell. What term best describes this kind of signaling?
A type III secretion system is a mechanism several bacteria use to evade the immune system. They insert a syringe-like structure into a nearby host cell and secrete effector proteins that kill the host cell. What term best describes this kind of signaling?
The question states that the type III secretion system involves a bacterium making contact with a nearby host cell. Recall that if a cell makes contact with the nearby cell for signal transduction, then the signal is characterized as a juxtacrine signal. In paracrine signaling, on the other hand, the signaling cell secretes a chemical signal such as a neurotransmitter. This chemical binds to receptors on a nearby cell and transmits the signal; in paracrine signaling the two cells never come in contact.
Endocrine signaling involves release of a chemical hormone that enters the bloodstream and signals cells elsewhere in the body. Autocrine signaling involves a cell releasing a molecule that binds to receptors on its own surface; therefore, in autocrine signaling the signaling cell and the target cell are the same.
The question states that the type III secretion system involves a bacterium making contact with a nearby host cell. Recall that if a cell makes contact with the nearby cell for signal transduction, then the signal is characterized as a juxtacrine signal. In paracrine signaling, on the other hand, the signaling cell secretes a chemical signal such as a neurotransmitter. This chemical binds to receptors on a nearby cell and transmits the signal; in paracrine signaling the two cells never come in contact.
Endocrine signaling involves release of a chemical hormone that enters the bloodstream and signals cells elsewhere in the body. Autocrine signaling involves a cell releasing a molecule that binds to receptors on its own surface; therefore, in autocrine signaling the signaling cell and the target cell are the same.
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Which of the following is false regarding cellular signaling?
I. Transmembrane receptors are found on both plasma membranes and nuclear membranes
II. Transmembrane receptors are always ion channels
III. A ligand can be polar or nonpolar
Which of the following is false regarding cellular signaling?
I. Transmembrane receptors are found on both plasma membranes and nuclear membranes
II. Transmembrane receptors are always ion channels
III. A ligand can be polar or nonpolar
A transmembrane receptor is any receptor that inserts itself into a membrane. A cell has a phospholipid bilayer membrane surrounding most of the organelles and the cell itself (the plasma membrane). Transmembrane receptors can be found on all of these membranes because the receptors are essential for receiving signals from the outside environment; therefore, you can find transmembrane receptors on the plasma membrane and on the nuclear membrane. Statement I is true.
A prototypical receptor has a ligand-binding site. Once the ligand binds, the receptor signals the cell accordingly. This signal induction can occur via several ways. One way is for a receptor itself to be an ion channel; upon ligand binding the channel opens and transports ions across the plasma membrane, which induces a signal inside the cell. Another way is for a receptor to be a G protein coupled receptor, which induces a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of the second messenger signaling molecule cAMP. There are several ways receptors can induce a signal; therefore, not all receptors are ion channels. Statement II is false.
A ligand can be either polar or nonpolar. The classic example is hormones. Recall that there are both polar and nonpolar (steroid) hormones. Polar hormones, such as the ones released from the pituitary, can’t traverse the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer; therefore, their receptors are found on the plasma membrane. Steroid hormones, released from the adrenal glands and gonads, can pass through the hydrophobic core and enter the cell. Upon entering the cell, the steroid hormone binds to receptors in the cytoplasm or on the nuclear membrane. Statement III is true.
A transmembrane receptor is any receptor that inserts itself into a membrane. A cell has a phospholipid bilayer membrane surrounding most of the organelles and the cell itself (the plasma membrane). Transmembrane receptors can be found on all of these membranes because the receptors are essential for receiving signals from the outside environment; therefore, you can find transmembrane receptors on the plasma membrane and on the nuclear membrane. Statement I is true.
A prototypical receptor has a ligand-binding site. Once the ligand binds, the receptor signals the cell accordingly. This signal induction can occur via several ways. One way is for a receptor itself to be an ion channel; upon ligand binding the channel opens and transports ions across the plasma membrane, which induces a signal inside the cell. Another way is for a receptor to be a G protein coupled receptor, which induces a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of the second messenger signaling molecule cAMP. There are several ways receptors can induce a signal; therefore, not all receptors are ion channels. Statement II is false.
A ligand can be either polar or nonpolar. The classic example is hormones. Recall that there are both polar and nonpolar (steroid) hormones. Polar hormones, such as the ones released from the pituitary, can’t traverse the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer; therefore, their receptors are found on the plasma membrane. Steroid hormones, released from the adrenal glands and gonads, can pass through the hydrophobic core and enter the cell. Upon entering the cell, the steroid hormone binds to receptors in the cytoplasm or on the nuclear membrane. Statement III is true.
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cAMP is an important molecule that is part of several signaling cascades. It is classified as a messenger and it can the signal.
cAMP is an important molecule that is part of several signaling cascades. It is classified as a messenger and it can the signal.
To answer this question you need to know the difference between a first and a second messenger molecule. First messenger molecules are extracellular molecules such as peptide hormones that bind to the receptor and induce a signal. Second messenger molecules, however, are intracellular molecules that are released and activated by first messenger molecules. cAMP is an intracellular molecule that is activated by signaling from a G-protein coupled receptor; therefore, it is a second messenger molecule. cAMP plays an important role in activation of several signal transduction pathways.
An extracellular signal needs to be amplified by the cell so that the signal reaches all of the target regions. Second messenger molecules, such as cAMP, play an important role in this amplification.
To answer this question you need to know the difference between a first and a second messenger molecule. First messenger molecules are extracellular molecules such as peptide hormones that bind to the receptor and induce a signal. Second messenger molecules, however, are intracellular molecules that are released and activated by first messenger molecules. cAMP is an intracellular molecule that is activated by signaling from a G-protein coupled receptor; therefore, it is a second messenger molecule. cAMP plays an important role in activation of several signal transduction pathways.
An extracellular signal needs to be amplified by the cell so that the signal reaches all of the target regions. Second messenger molecules, such as cAMP, play an important role in this amplification.
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Sildenafil (commonly called Viagra) is a common drug used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Sildenafil's effect comes from its ability to cause vasodilation in smooth muscle cells. For this problem, we're only going to consider its effects on erections in males.
Erectile dysfunction is a common medical problem in older men. Its most significant effect is the prevention of erections. Erections occur when there is an increase in blood flow via enlargement of an artery (vasodilation). Understanding the mechanism by which vasodilations occur is important in order to treat erectile dysfunction.
Erections occur when nitric oxide 
is released from an area in the penis and binds to guanylate cyclase in other cells of the penis, which creates cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from GTP. cGMP causes a relaxation of the arterial wall in order to increase blood flow to the region, thereby causing an erection. cGMP is broken down over time by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) into GTP, which reverses the effect and causes vasoconstriction on the arterial wall. Combatting this effect is the major method by which Viagra functions.
Nitric oxide is which of these types of signals?
Sildenafil (commonly called Viagra) is a common drug used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Sildenafil's effect comes from its ability to cause vasodilation in smooth muscle cells. For this problem, we're only going to consider its effects on erections in males.
Erectile dysfunction is a common medical problem in older men. Its most significant effect is the prevention of erections. Erections occur when there is an increase in blood flow via enlargement of an artery (vasodilation). Understanding the mechanism by which vasodilations occur is important in order to treat erectile dysfunction.
Erections occur when nitric oxide
Nitric oxide is which of these types of signals?
Nitric oxide, as stated in the passage, is a signal that is sent from an area in the penis to another area within the penis. Since this is signaling to nearby cells, it is an example of paracrine signaling.
Nitric oxide, as stated in the passage, is a signal that is sent from an area in the penis to another area within the penis. Since this is signaling to nearby cells, it is an example of paracrine signaling.
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Sildenafil (commonly called Viagra) is a common drug used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Sildenafil's effect comes from its ability to cause vasodilation in smooth muscle cells. For this problem, we're only going to consider its effects on erections in males.
Erectile dysfunction is a common medical problem in older men. Its most significant effect is the prevention of erections. Erections occur when there is an increase in blood flow via enlargement of an artery (vasodilation). Understanding the mechanism by which vasodilations occur is important in order to treat erectile dysfunction.
Erections occur when nitric oxide is released from an area in the penis and binds to guanylate cyclase in other cells of the penis, which creates cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from GTP. cGMP causes a relaxation of the arterial wall in order to increase blood flow to the region, thereby causing an erection. cGMP is broken down over time by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) into GTP, which reverses the effect and causes vasoconstriction on the arterial wall. Combatting this effect is the major method by which Viagra functions.
Which of the following is not a possible mechanism by which Sildenafil treats erectile dysfunction?
Sildenafil (commonly called Viagra) is a common drug used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Sildenafil's effect comes from its ability to cause vasodilation in smooth muscle cells. For this problem, we're only going to consider its effects on erections in males.
Erectile dysfunction is a common medical problem in older men. Its most significant effect is the prevention of erections. Erections occur when there is an increase in blood flow via enlargement of an artery (vasodilation). Understanding the mechanism by which vasodilations occur is important in order to treat erectile dysfunction.
Erections occur when nitric oxide
Which of the following is not a possible mechanism by which Sildenafil treats erectile dysfunction?
For this question we have to select an answer choice that would decrease the prolonging of vasodilation.
The only answer choice that decreases vasodilation is by increasing the breakdown of nitric oxide, which is the first messenger in this signal transduction cascade to cause vasodilation. If nitric oxide breakdown is increased, vasodilation would decrease.
Increase in cGMP production, decrease in cGMP breakdown, inhibition of PDE5 activity, and increase in nitric oxide release would all prolong vasodilation.
For this question we have to select an answer choice that would decrease the prolonging of vasodilation.
The only answer choice that decreases vasodilation is by increasing the breakdown of nitric oxide, which is the first messenger in this signal transduction cascade to cause vasodilation. If nitric oxide breakdown is increased, vasodilation would decrease.
Increase in cGMP production, decrease in cGMP breakdown, inhibition of PDE5 activity, and increase in nitric oxide release would all prolong vasodilation.
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Both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems are essential for homeostasis and for survival. For example, when we are trying to run away from a threat, the sympathetic nervous system is in full effect to allow us to escape from danger. However, when there is no obvious threat, the parasympathetic nervous system tends to be more in control.
There are similarities and differences between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. In preganglionic nerve fibers, both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system utilize the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Closer to the target organ, the parasympathetic nervous system remains dependent on acetylcholine whereas norepinephrine and epinephrine are the predominant neurotransmitters utilized by the sympathetic nervous system.
When norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to their receptors, different effects are carried out based on the type of receptor, affinity, and location of the receptor. For example, epinephrine has a higher affinity for the beta-2 receptor. When epinephrine binds to the beta-2 receptor, common effects include vasodilation and bronchodilation. Norepinephrine has a stronger affinity for the alpha-1, alpha-2 and beta-1 receptors. When norepinephrine binds to its receptor, common effects on the body include vasoconstriction (alpha-1), increased heart rate (beta-1) and uterine contraction (alpha-1).
Patient A accidentally overdosed on a drug that activates the alpha-1, beta-1 and beta-2 receptors and is now experiencing a severe asthma attack. Which of the following second messengers should be regulated to treat the asthma attack?
I. Decrease CAMP level
II. Decrease adenylate cyclase activity
III. increase phospholipase C activity
Both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems are essential for homeostasis and for survival. For example, when we are trying to run away from a threat, the sympathetic nervous system is in full effect to allow us to escape from danger. However, when there is no obvious threat, the parasympathetic nervous system tends to be more in control.
There are similarities and differences between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. In preganglionic nerve fibers, both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system utilize the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Closer to the target organ, the parasympathetic nervous system remains dependent on acetylcholine whereas norepinephrine and epinephrine are the predominant neurotransmitters utilized by the sympathetic nervous system.
When norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to their receptors, different effects are carried out based on the type of receptor, affinity, and location of the receptor. For example, epinephrine has a higher affinity for the beta-2 receptor. When epinephrine binds to the beta-2 receptor, common effects include vasodilation and bronchodilation. Norepinephrine has a stronger affinity for the alpha-1, alpha-2 and beta-1 receptors. When norepinephrine binds to its receptor, common effects on the body include vasoconstriction (alpha-1), increased heart rate (beta-1) and uterine contraction (alpha-1).
Patient A accidentally overdosed on a drug that activates the alpha-1, beta-1 and beta-2 receptors and is now experiencing a severe asthma attack. Which of the following second messengers should be regulated to treat the asthma attack?
I. Decrease CAMP level
II. Decrease adenylate cyclase activity
III. increase phospholipase C activity
During a severe asthma attack, one should administer cpinephrine. Epinephrine binds to the beta-2 receptor. As mentioned in the passage, the activation of the beta-2 receptor will activate intercellular level of cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP will then activate protein kinase A, which will then phosphorylate various proteins. Therefore, we want to increase cAMP levels, adenylate cyclase activity and decrease phospholipase C activity.
During a severe asthma attack, one should administer cpinephrine. Epinephrine binds to the beta-2 receptor. As mentioned in the passage, the activation of the beta-2 receptor will activate intercellular level of cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP will then activate protein kinase A, which will then phosphorylate various proteins. Therefore, we want to increase cAMP levels, adenylate cyclase activity and decrease phospholipase C activity.
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The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis.
One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus.
Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.
Which of the following molecules can be found inside of a cell?
I. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
II. Protein kinase A
III. Protein kinase C
The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis.
One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus.
Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.
Which of the following molecules can be found inside of a cell?
I. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
II. Protein kinase A
III. Protein kinase C
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, protein kinase A and protein kinase C are all second messengers in the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. Since they are second messengers, they amplify and transmit the signal throughout different compartments of the cell.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, protein kinase A and protein kinase C are all second messengers in the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. Since they are second messengers, they amplify and transmit the signal throughout different compartments of the cell.
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The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis.
One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus.
Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.
Which of the following are associated with the G protein-coupled receptor?
I. Adenylate cyclase
II. Phospholipase C
III. Diacylglycerol
The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis.
One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus.
Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.
Which of the following are associated with the G protein-coupled receptor?
I. Adenylate cyclase
II. Phospholipase C
III. Diacylglycerol
Adenylate cyclase is utilized in the G protein-coupled receptor pathway to convert ATP to cAMP. Phospholipase C and diacylglycerol are also part of the G protein-coupled receptor pathway.
Adenylate cyclase is utilized in the G protein-coupled receptor pathway to convert ATP to cAMP. Phospholipase C and diacylglycerol are also part of the G protein-coupled receptor pathway.
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Which of the following cell organelles is responsible for making proteins?
Which of the following cell organelles is responsible for making proteins?
Ribisomes are the protein creators within the cell. Ribisomes use a process called translation (via the use of mRNA) to form proteins.
The Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved in protein modification and packaging. Lysosomes are involved in detoxification.
Ribisomes are the protein creators within the cell. Ribisomes use a process called translation (via the use of mRNA) to form proteins.
The Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved in protein modification and packaging. Lysosomes are involved in detoxification.
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Prions are the suspected cause of a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. According to prevailing theory, prions are infectious particles made only of protein and found in high concentrations in the brains of infected animals. All mammals produce normal prion protein, PrPC, a transmembrane protein whose function remains unclear.
Infectious prions, PrPRes, induce conformational changes in the existing PrPC proteins according to the following reaction:
PrPC + PrPRes → PrPRes + PrPRes
The PrPRes is then suspected to accumulate in the nervous tissue of infected patients and cause disease. This model of transmission generates replicated proteins, but does so bypassing the standard model of the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription and translation apparently do not play a role in this replication process.
This theory is a major departure from previously established biological dogma. A scientist decides to test the protein-only theory of prion propagation. He establishes his experiment as follows:
Homogenized brain matter of infected rabbits is injected into the brains of healthy rabbits, as per the following table:
Rabbit 1 and 2: injected with normal saline on days 1 and 2
The above trials serve as controls.
Rabbit 3 and 4: injected with homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use unmodified brain matter.
Rabbit 5 and 6: injected with irradiated homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been irradiated to destroy nucleic acids in the homogenate.
Rabbit 7 and 8: injected with protein-free centrifuged homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been centrifuged to generate a protein-free homogenate and a protein-rich homogenate based on molecular weight.
Rabbit 9 and 10: injected with boiled homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that have been boiled to destroy any bacterial contaminants in the homogenate.
Which intermediates of the central dogma of molecular biology below are present in normal cellular replication, but apparently absent in the above model of prion replication?
I. mRNA
II. tRNA
III. Protein
Prions are the suspected cause of a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. According to prevailing theory, prions are infectious particles made only of protein and found in high concentrations in the brains of infected animals. All mammals produce normal prion protein, PrPC, a transmembrane protein whose function remains unclear.
Infectious prions, PrPRes, induce conformational changes in the existing PrPC proteins according to the following reaction:
PrPC + PrPRes → PrPRes + PrPRes
The PrPRes is then suspected to accumulate in the nervous tissue of infected patients and cause disease. This model of transmission generates replicated proteins, but does so bypassing the standard model of the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription and translation apparently do not play a role in this replication process.
This theory is a major departure from previously established biological dogma. A scientist decides to test the protein-only theory of prion propagation. He establishes his experiment as follows:
Homogenized brain matter of infected rabbits is injected into the brains of healthy rabbits, as per the following table:
Rabbit 1 and 2: injected with normal saline on days 1 and 2
The above trials serve as controls.
Rabbit 3 and 4: injected with homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use unmodified brain matter.
Rabbit 5 and 6: injected with irradiated homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been irradiated to destroy nucleic acids in the homogenate.
Rabbit 7 and 8: injected with protein-free centrifuged homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been centrifuged to generate a protein-free homogenate and a protein-rich homogenate based on molecular weight.
Rabbit 9 and 10: injected with boiled homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that have been boiled to destroy any bacterial contaminants in the homogenate.
Which intermediates of the central dogma of molecular biology below are present in normal cellular replication, but apparently absent in the above model of prion replication?
I. mRNA
II. tRNA
III. Protein
The above reaction shows an actual transfer of information. The information contaiend in the specific structure of PrPC is converted to that contained in PrPRes; in other words, PrPRes is effectively replicating. In all other forms of cellular replication, based on the central dogma of molecular biology, replication occurs based on the following pattern:
Parental DNA → mRNA → Protein, carried by tRNA
The above reaction shows an actual transfer of information. The information contaiend in the specific structure of PrPC is converted to that contained in PrPRes; in other words, PrPRes is effectively replicating. In all other forms of cellular replication, based on the central dogma of molecular biology, replication occurs based on the following pattern:
Parental DNA → mRNA → Protein, carried by tRNA
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Prions are the suspected cause of a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. According to prevailing theory, prions are infectious particles made only of protein and found in high concentrations in the brains of infected animals. All mammals produce normal prion protein, PrPC, a transmembrane protein whose function remains unclear.
Infectious prions, PrPRes, induce conformational changes in the existing PrPC proteins according to the following reaction:
PrPC + PrPRes → PrPRes + PrPRes
The PrPRes is then suspected to accumulate in the nervous tissue of infected patients and cause disease. This model of transmission generates replicated proteins, but does so bypassing the standard model of the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription and translation apparently do not play a role in this replication process.
This theory is a major departure from previously established biological dogma. A scientist decides to test the protein-only theory of prion propagation. He establishes his experiment as follows:
Homogenized brain matter of infected rabbits is injected into the brains of healthy rabbits, as per the following table:
Rabbit 1 and 2: injected with normal saline on days 1 and 2
The above trials serve as controls.
Rabbit 3 and 4: injected with homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use unmodified brain matter.
Rabbit 5 and 6: injected with irradiated homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been irradiated to destroy nucleic acids in the homogenate.
Rabbit 7 and 8: injected with protein-free centrifuged homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been centrifuged to generate a protein-free homogenate and a protein-rich homogenate based on molecular weight.
Rabbit 9 and 10: injected with boiled homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that have been boiled to destroy any bacterial contaminants in the homogenate.
Which of the following findings would most strongly refute the protein-transmission hypothesis of prion propagation?
Prions are the suspected cause of a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. According to prevailing theory, prions are infectious particles made only of protein and found in high concentrations in the brains of infected animals. All mammals produce normal prion protein, PrPC, a transmembrane protein whose function remains unclear.
Infectious prions, PrPRes, induce conformational changes in the existing PrPC proteins according to the following reaction:
PrPC + PrPRes → PrPRes + PrPRes
The PrPRes is then suspected to accumulate in the nervous tissue of infected patients and cause disease. This model of transmission generates replicated proteins, but does so bypassing the standard model of the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription and translation apparently do not play a role in this replication process.
This theory is a major departure from previously established biological dogma. A scientist decides to test the protein-only theory of prion propagation. He establishes his experiment as follows:
Homogenized brain matter of infected rabbits is injected into the brains of healthy rabbits, as per the following table:
Rabbit 1 and 2: injected with normal saline on days 1 and 2
The above trials serve as controls.
Rabbit 3 and 4: injected with homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use unmodified brain matter.
Rabbit 5 and 6: injected with irradiated homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been irradiated to destroy nucleic acids in the homogenate.
Rabbit 7 and 8: injected with protein-free centrifuged homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that has been centrifuged to generate a protein-free homogenate and a protein-rich homogenate based on molecular weight.
Rabbit 9 and 10: injected with boiled homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2
The above trials use brain matter that have been boiled to destroy any bacterial contaminants in the homogenate.
Which of the following findings would most strongly refute the protein-transmission hypothesis of prion propagation?
Transmission in the control and a transmission in those rabbits injected with protein free homogenate would refute the above model. A protein-free homogenate would only be able to transmit disease via nucleic acids.
Transmission in the control and a transmission in those rabbits injected with protein free homogenate would refute the above model. A protein-free homogenate would only be able to transmit disease via nucleic acids.
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A surface protein would most likely be translated from mRNA by the .
A surface protein would most likely be translated from mRNA by the .
Proteins are translated from mRNA by ribosomes. Ribosomes are located on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, as well as in the cytoplasm. Inter-membrane proteins are constructed by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and sent off in a vesicle, which later becomes part of the cell surface. Generally, proteins created by cytoplasmic ribosomes are destined to serve as cytoplasmic proteins.
Proteins are translated from mRNA by ribosomes. Ribosomes are located on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, as well as in the cytoplasm. Inter-membrane proteins are constructed by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and sent off in a vesicle, which later becomes part of the cell surface. Generally, proteins created by cytoplasmic ribosomes are destined to serve as cytoplasmic proteins.
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Cryptosporidium is a genus of gastrointestinal parasite that infects the intestinal epithelium of mammals. Cryptosporidium is water-borne, and is an apicomplexan parasite. This phylum also includes Plasmodium, Babesia, and Toxoplasma.
Apicomplexans are unique due to their apicoplast, an apical organelle that helps penetrate mammalian epithelium. In the case of cryptosporidium, there is an interaction between the surface proteins of mammalian epithelial tissue and those of the apical portion of the cryptosporidium infective stage, or oocyst. A scientist is conducting an experiment to test the hypothesis that the oocyst secretes a peptide compound that neutralizes intestinal defense cells. These defense cells are resident in the intestinal epithelium, and defend the tissue by phagocytizing the oocysts.
She sets up the following experiment:
As the neutralizing compound was believed to be secreted by the oocyst, the scientist collected oocysts onto growth media. The oocysts were grown among intestinal epithelial cells, and then the media was collected. The media was then added to another plate where Toxoplasma gondii was growing with intestinal epithelial cells. A second plate of Toxoplasma gondii was grown with the same type of intestinal epithelium, but no oocyst-sourced media was added.
The scientist in the passage develops an effective treatment for cryptosporidium infection. The treatment exploits a difference in the rRNA structure between cryptosporidium and its human hosts. In which organelle is this difference most likely to directly manifest?
Cryptosporidium is a genus of gastrointestinal parasite that infects the intestinal epithelium of mammals. Cryptosporidium is water-borne, and is an apicomplexan parasite. This phylum also includes Plasmodium, Babesia, and Toxoplasma.
Apicomplexans are unique due to their apicoplast, an apical organelle that helps penetrate mammalian epithelium. In the case of cryptosporidium, there is an interaction between the surface proteins of mammalian epithelial tissue and those of the apical portion of the cryptosporidium infective stage, or oocyst. A scientist is conducting an experiment to test the hypothesis that the oocyst secretes a peptide compound that neutralizes intestinal defense cells. These defense cells are resident in the intestinal epithelium, and defend the tissue by phagocytizing the oocysts.
She sets up the following experiment:
As the neutralizing compound was believed to be secreted by the oocyst, the scientist collected oocysts onto growth media. The oocysts were grown among intestinal epithelial cells, and then the media was collected. The media was then added to another plate where Toxoplasma gondii was growing with intestinal epithelial cells. A second plate of Toxoplasma gondii was grown with the same type of intestinal epithelium, but no oocyst-sourced media was added.
The scientist in the passage develops an effective treatment for cryptosporidium infection. The treatment exploits a difference in the rRNA structure between cryptosporidium and its human hosts. In which organelle is this difference most likely to directly manifest?
Ribosomes have rRNA as a critical component, and assisting in protein synthesis is the major role for rRNA in eukaryotic cells.
Ribosomes have rRNA as a critical component, and assisting in protein synthesis is the major role for rRNA in eukaryotic cells.
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