[1] Meteorologists do not guess; they measure and compare. Every few hours, weather balloons rise, satellites scan cloud tops, and ocean buoys ping back data. These tools capture pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind—signals that describe the air right now. Yet tomorrow remains a moving target because the atmosphere is a restless system.

[2] To peek ahead, scientists run a model. In this context, a model is not a tiny plastic globe or a person on a runway. It is a set of mathematical rules coded into a computer that imitates how air and water behave across space and time. The program takes today's observations, then steps forward minute by minute, letting storms grow or fade on-screen. Because the real world wriggles, forecasters often use an ensemble—several slightly different model runs—to see a spread of possible futures and reduce overconfidence.

[3] Words used on TV make weather feel alive. A "stubborn" low-pressure system can "park" over a city. A jet stream may "dip" like a lazy ribbon, then snap back. Such phrasing does not mean the atmosphere chooses; it is a shortcut that helps audiences feel the push and pull. Even so, scientists hedge. They say a storm will likely arrive by morning, not that it will certainly slam every street. Confidence can grow as fresh data arrive, but uncertainty never vanishes.

[4] Diagram (described): A simple map shows a cold front as a line of triangles, arrows for wind, and curved lines for isobars. Labels point to a low (L) and the advancing front. Caption: Figure 1. A schematic of a cold front moving east.

[Glossary] isobar: a line on a map that connects places with the same air pressure; ensemble: several model runs used together to compare outcomes; cold front: the leading edge of a colder air mass.

Footnote [1]: Computers adjust for missing data by blending information from nearby stations.

As used in paragraph 2, model most nearly means what?

(1) On summer afternoons, many cities run warmer than nearby fields and forests. Scientists call this the urban heat island. Buildings, roads, and parking lots soak up sunlight during the day and release it slowly after dark. As a result, heat can linger, and, figuratively speaking, the city wears a heavy blanket. This blanket is not cozy; it traps warmth close to the ground. The extra heat can strain air-conditioners, intensify smog, and make nighttime less restful. While every city is different, measurements from weather stations and satellites consistently show higher temperatures over dense downtown cores. [Figure 1: Three rooftop types and heat flow. Labels: A) dark roof, B) light roof, C) green roof. Arrows show heat moving away.]

(2) Why does this happen? One key factor is albedo, a surface's reflectivity. Dark materials have low albedo and absorb more solar energy. Another factor is heat capacity, the amount of heat a material can store. Concrete and brick hold heat well, then release it by convection, the upward movement of warmed air. Cars, buses, and air-conditioners also add "waste heat." Trees and ponds can temper the effect by casting shade and adding moisture to the air, which can cool as it evaporates. However, in areas with few plants and many hard surfaces, warming is amplified.

(3) Cities can respond with cool roofs, which use pale, reflective coatings, or with green roofs, which grow plants above buildings. Plants cool through evapotranspiration, the combined process of water evaporating from leaves and soil. Permeable paving, which lets rain soak through, can also reduce hot, stubborn surfaces that hold heat. None of these changes is a magic switch, but together they can noticeably lower temperatures. They may also make streets more comfortable and, over time, reduce energy use.

(4) Current research compares blocks with different mixes of shade, traffic, and materials. Small sensors mounted on bikes and buses yield detailed maps that can guide planning. While results will surely vary by climate and neighborhood, early findings suggest that even modest increases in tree cover can make a measurable difference.

Glossary:

• albedo: how much light a surface reflects
• convection: warm air rising and moving heat
• evapotranspiration: cooling from water leaving plants and soil
• permeable paving: pavement that lets water pass through

Which option best captures the connotation of blanket as used in paragraph 1?

(1) A small town started a citizen science project to count moths at night. Volunteers set up sheets and lights in backyards and parks. The goal was simple: find out which species visit and when. The process, however, required careful planning to make results trustworthy.

(2) First, the group agreed on a sampling plan. They chose several sites and drew a transect—a straight line to mark where to check—in each place. They also picked a standard time window so that people would observe at roughly the same hours. Without such rules, one busy park might be overcounted and a quiet yard ignored.

(3) The team discussed bias, which happens when some things are counted more than others for reasons unrelated to the study question. Bright streetlights might draw insects away from darker spots. A windy night might reduce moth visits. The organizers reminded volunteers to log weather conditions so patterns could be compared fairly.

(4) To make comparisons fair, the group used a control. On alternating nights, one porch light stayed off while the other stayed on. The off-light site acted as a steady baseline. If the on-light site showed many more moths, the difference would be more meaningful. This setup would not solve every problem, but it would likely reduce confusion.

(5) Figure 1: Top-down sketch of two adjacent yards labeled A and B with one lamp illustrated as lit and the other as unlit; arrows point from the lit lamp toward a hanging sheet.

Glossary:

• Transect: a straight line along which observations are made.
• Bias: a tilt in data that makes results unfair or unbalanced.
• Control: a standard for comparison in an experiment.
• Variable: something that can change and affect results.

As used in paragraph 4, the word "control" most nearly means what?

(1) On summer afternoons, many cities run warmer than nearby fields and forests. Scientists call this the urban heat island. Buildings, roads, and parking lots soak up sunlight during the day and release it slowly after dark. As a result, heat can linger, and, figuratively speaking, the city wears a heavy blanket. This blanket is not cozy; it traps warmth close to the ground. The extra heat can strain air-conditioners, intensify smog, and make nighttime less restful. While every city is different, measurements from weather stations and satellites consistently show higher temperatures over dense downtown cores. [Figure 1: Three rooftop types and heat flow. Labels: A) dark roof, B) light roof, C) green roof. Arrows show heat moving away.]

(2) Why does this happen? One key factor is albedo, a surface's reflectivity. Dark materials have low albedo and absorb more solar energy. Another factor is heat capacity, the amount of heat a material can store. Concrete and brick hold heat well, then release it by convection, the upward movement of warmed air. Cars, buses, and air-conditioners also add "waste heat." Trees and ponds can temper the effect by casting shade and adding moisture to the air, which can cool as it evaporates. However, in areas with few plants and many hard surfaces, warming is amplified.

(3) Cities can respond with cool roofs, which use pale, reflective coatings, or with green roofs, which grow plants above buildings. Plants cool through evapotranspiration, the combined process of water evaporating from leaves and soil. Permeable paving, which lets rain soak through, can also reduce hot, stubborn surfaces that hold heat. None of these changes is a magic switch, but together they can noticeably lower temperatures. They may also make streets more comfortable and, over time, reduce energy use.

(4) Current research compares blocks with different mixes of shade, traffic, and materials. Small sensors mounted on bikes and buses yield detailed maps that can guide planning. While results will surely vary by climate and neighborhood, early findings suggest that even modest increases in tree cover can make a measurable difference.

Glossary:

• albedo: how much light a surface reflects
• convection: warm air rising and moving heat
• evapotranspiration: cooling from water leaving plants and soil
• permeable paving: pavement that lets water pass through

As used in paragraph 4, current most nearly means what?

Paragraph 1 Pick up a flyer, open a news app, or listen to a podcast, and you are taking in a message. The tools that carry messages have changed over centuries, but the need to share ideas has not.

Paragraph 2 Before printing, scribes copied texts by hand. That made books rare and expensive. When printers arranged movable type—small metal letters—onto a press in the fifteenth century, they sped up the work. Suddenly, pamphlets could appear in many towns at once. Some were elegant; many were humble sheets meant to be read and passed along.

Paragraph 3 Today's media are diverse: posters, livestreams, and blogs all deliver information. In this passage, "medium" refers to the way a message travels from a creator to an audience. A medium can be paper, radio waves, or a digital screen. While the technology shifts, the goal stays similar: to reach people. Ink once gave wings to ideas; now signals do.

Paragraph 4 Historians caution against saying one invention alone caused major change. Still, the printing press likely boosted literacy and debate by making texts cheaper and more available. Distribution networks—paths that move goods from makers to readers—grew along with demand.

Figure 1. Simple printing press with a stack of blank pages and a roller (diagram with labeled parts).

Glossary • Movable type: individual letters that can be arranged to print a page. • Medium (communication): the means or channel used to convey information. • Distribution network: the system that moves products from producers to users.

As used in paragraph 3, "medium" most nearly means what?

Paragraph 1: A tide pool is a shallow basin left behind by the retreating ocean. For a few hours, it is like a tiny city packed with life. Snails climb rocks, barnacles clamp shut, and anemones open their soft arms like blooming flowers.

Paragraph 2: Biologists sketch food webs to show who eats whom. Producers such as algae capture sunlight. Herbivores graze, while predators like small fish and crabs hunt. At this scale, one missing species is not a trivial gap; it can shift how the entire web functions.

Paragraph 3: The pool is fragile. That word does not mean weak in a mocking way. Instead, it signals that the community is easily damaged by clumsy steps, warm hands, or even too much sunscreen washing into the water. Visitors should move slowly, keep stones where they are, and leave creatures where they live.

Paragraph 4: Figure 1: Simple diagram of a tide pool with labeled rock, algae, snail, crab, and fish. Arrows indicate feeding relationships. Caption: A food web links species in many directions.

Glossary: producer: an organism that makes its own food from sunlight; herbivore: an organism that eats plants; predator: an animal that hunts other animals; salinity: how salty the water is.

Which option best captures the connotation of "fragile" as used in paragraph 3?

[1] No one can promise safety from earthquakes, but planning reduces risk. Buildings that have been retrofitted—strengthened with bolts, braces, and straps—perform better. Families that practice drills move more calmly. City crews map soft soils where shaking can amplify, and engineers flag zones at risk for liquefaction, where wet ground can behave like a liquid during strong shaking.

[2] Scientists read fault maps the way hikers read trails. A quiet fault is not a harmless one; stress can build silently for decades. That is why the text says hazards may be "lurking" under streets and schoolyards. The word suggests hidden danger waiting out of sight, not a monster in a movie but a risk that deserves attention. Because precise timing remains uncertain, officials focus on what people can do today.

[3] Warnings use careful language. An alert might say shaking is likely within seconds, not guaranteed. That hedge matters; it avoids panic while still urging action. Boosters—words like critical or urgent—appear when instructions demand speed, such as "Drop, Cover, and Hold On." The aim is a steady tone that neither downplays nor dramatizes.

[4] Diagram (described): A cross-section shows two blocks of crust meeting at a slanted line. Arrows point in opposite directions along the fault, and a burst symbol marks where shaking starts. Caption: Figure 1. Simplified view of a fault where earthquakes begin.

[Glossary] retrofit: to add strength to an existing building; fault: a crack in Earth's crust where blocks move; liquefaction: when wet soil loses strength and acts like a liquid during strong shaking.

How does the author's choice of the word lurking in paragraph 2 affect the meaning or tone?

[1] Engineers steer a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) from a ship at the surface, watching video and reading telemetry—data streamed from sensors about depth, speed, and temperature. They cannot rely on guesswork; signals must be crisp, or the robot could drift into darkness.

[2] A thick cable called a tether runs from the ship to the ROV. The team calls it a lifeline. Through this single cord, electricity powers thrusters, and commands travel down while images hurry up. If the ocean tugs, the tether must resist drag without snapping. If currents calm, it must still pay out smoothly. The word lifeline is deliberate: without the tether, the mission would almost certainly fail.

[3] Operators speak carefully. They might say, "We may add ballast," or "We must hold position," to show levels of necessity. Such hedging and boosting signal both caution and confidence. Although the sea can be a stubborn negotiator, clear procedures make danger manageable. Latency—the tiny delay in signal travel—can complicate moves, but practice shrinks mistakes.

[4] Diagram (described): A ship floats above an ROV. A single line connects them. Arrows indicate the path of signals along the tether and the push of current. Caption: Figure 1. The ROV's tether linking vehicle and ship.

[Glossary] telemetry: sensor data transmitted from a distant device; thruster: a small motor that pushes a vehicle through water; ballast: weight added to help control depth; latency: the delay between sending and receiving a signal.

How does the author's choice of the word lifeline in paragraph 2 affect the meaning or tone?

(1) On summer afternoons, many cities run warmer than nearby fields and forests. Scientists call this the urban heat island. Buildings, roads, and parking lots soak up sunlight during the day and release it slowly after dark. As a result, heat can linger, and, figuratively speaking, the city wears a heavy blanket. This blanket is not cozy; it traps warmth close to the ground. The extra heat can strain air-conditioners, intensify smog, and make nighttime less restful. While every city is different, measurements from weather stations and satellites consistently show higher temperatures over dense downtown cores. [Figure 1: Three rooftop types and heat flow. Labels: A) dark roof, B) light roof, C) green roof. Arrows show heat moving away.]

(2) Why does this happen? One key factor is albedo, a surface's reflectivity. Dark materials have low albedo and absorb more solar energy. Another factor is heat capacity, the amount of heat a material can store. Concrete and brick hold heat well, then release it by convection, the upward movement of warmed air. Cars, buses, and air-conditioners also add "waste heat." Trees and ponds can temper the effect by casting shade and adding moisture to the air, which can cool as it evaporates. However, in areas with few plants and many hard surfaces, warming is amplified.

(3) Cities can respond with cool roofs, which use pale, reflective coatings, or with green roofs, which grow plants above buildings. Plants cool through evapotranspiration, the combined process of water evaporating from leaves and soil. Permeable paving, which lets rain soak through, can also reduce hot, stubborn surfaces that hold heat. None of these changes is a magic switch, but together they can noticeably lower temperatures. They may also make streets more comfortable and, over time, reduce energy use.

(4) Current research compares blocks with different mixes of shade, traffic, and materials. Small sensors mounted on bikes and buses yield detailed maps that can guide planning. While results will surely vary by climate and neighborhood, early findings suggest that even modest increases in tree cover can make a measurable difference.

Glossary:

• albedo: how much light a surface reflects
• convection: warm air rising and moving heat
• evapotranspiration: cooling from water leaving plants and soil
• permeable paving: pavement that lets water pass through

How does the author's choice of stubborn in paragraph 3 affect the meaning or tone?

Paragraph 1 Earthquakes begin without warning, but information about them can move faster than the shaking. Early-warning systems listen for the first signs of motion and send alerts so people and machines can take quick action.

Paragraph 2 When a fault slips, it releases two main kinds of seismic waves. The first jolt is the P-wave, a quick push that races ahead but is usually less damaging. The slower S-wave follows with a stronger side-to-side motion. Sensors can detect the P-wave, estimate where it started, and warn that more shaking is coming.

Paragraph 3 Engineers build networks of instruments that measure ground motion and transmit data to computers. Software triangulates the epicenter, estimates magnitude, and calculates who is likely to feel shaking. There is always some latency, or delay, but a few seconds can be enough for trains to brake or for classrooms to take cover.

Paragraph 4 No system is perfect. Mountains can block signals, and false alarms sometimes happen. Even so, many experts are confident that early warnings reduce risk by helping people act before the strongest waves arrive.

Figure 1. Diagram showing a sensor near a fault sending a signal toward a city; wavy lines indicate ground motion and arrows indicate alerts (diagram with labeled elements).

Glossary • P-wave: the first, faster seismic wave with a pushing motion. • S-wave: the slower seismic wave with a stronger shaking motion. • Epicenter: the point on Earth's surface above where an earthquake begins. • Latency: the delay between an event and a system's response.

How does the author's choice of the word "jolt" in paragraph 2 affect the tone and meaning?