The purpose of glycolysis is to generate pyruvate and NADH from glucose. The pyruvate will enter the citric acid cycle and the NADH will be used to donate a proton and electron to the electron transport chain, helping to generate the proton gradient for ATP synthesis. The first step of the citric acid cycle is the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

All of the examples listed are considered second messengers except for protein kinase C, which interacts with second messenger pathways as an effector; however, it is not a second messenger itself.

Recall that second messengers are used to amplify signals within the cell. A ligand may bind to a receptor on the cell surface in order to activate a signaling cascade. Second messagers will help propagate this cascade throughout the cytosol. The messengers essentially help transfer the signal from the receptor on the cell membrane to the proteins in the cytosol that will ultimately be affected.

The addition and removal of phosphate groups can serve critical functions in the regulation of protein activity. The binding or uncoupling of phosphate groups frequently serves to activate or deactivate proteins.

A phosphatase removes a phosphate group from its ligand.

A kinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates—or adds a phosphate group to—its ligand.

Several different types of proteins can change the structure of a ligand, such as isomerases, and ubiquitin ligases add ubiquitin to their ligands.

Chemotaxis refers to the movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Single or multicellular organisms may direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important because these organisms need to find food, flee from harmful substances, and chemotaxis also aids in development. Positive chemotaxis is movement towards a higher concentration of the chemical, whereas negative chemotaxis is movement away from the chemical.

The addition and removal of phosphate groups can serve critical functions in the regulation of protein activity. The binding or uncoupling of phosphate groups frequently serves to activate or deactivate proteins.

A phosphatase removes a phosphate group from its ligand.

A kinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates—or adds a phosphate group to—its ligand.

Several different types of proteins can change the structure of a ligand, such as isomerases, and ubiquitin ligases add ubiquitin to their ligands.

Chemotaxis refers to the movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Single or multicellular organisms may direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important because these organisms need to find food, flee from harmful substances, and chemotaxis also aids in development. Positive chemotaxis is movement towards a higher concentration of the chemical, whereas negative chemotaxis is movement away from the chemical.

The purpose of glycolysis is to generate pyruvate and NADH from glucose. The pyruvate will enter the citric acid cycle and the NADH will be used to donate a proton and electron to the electron transport chain, helping to generate the proton gradient for ATP synthesis. The first step of the citric acid cycle is the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

The addition and removal of phosphate groups can serve critical functions in the regulation of protein activity. The binding or uncoupling of phosphate groups frequently serves to activate or deactivate proteins.

A phosphatase removes a phosphate group from its ligand.

A kinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates—or adds a phosphate group to—its ligand.

Several different types of proteins can change the structure of a ligand, such as isomerases, and ubiquitin ligases add ubiquitin to their ligands.

The purpose of glycolysis is to generate pyruvate and NADH from glucose. The pyruvate will enter the citric acid cycle and the NADH will be used to donate a proton and electron to the electron transport chain, helping to generate the proton gradient for ATP synthesis. The first step of the citric acid cycle is the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

Chemotaxis refers to the movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Single or multicellular organisms may direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important because these organisms need to find food, flee from harmful substances, and chemotaxis also aids in development. Positive chemotaxis is movement towards a higher concentration of the chemical, whereas negative chemotaxis is movement away from the chemical.