The information-processing models are analogies that compare human memory to a computer's operations. In doing so, this analogy breaks the human memory system into three parts: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding is the first part of the processing. It is during this stage that the information gets into our brains. In terms of a computer, this would be when information is "encoded" into the hard drive. This process is followed by storage. As the term indicates, this is when information is retained. This is synonymous with retention, which is measured by recall, recognition and relearning. The third process to this model is retrieval. Much like when we command a computer to do something and it retrieves the information that's been stored, this is when we call the information back out from storage.

Implicit memory refers to memories that do not rely upon conscious recall activities. Procedural memory is the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks like tying our shoes or riding a bike. These activities do not require our conscious awareness of our previous attempts.

Iconic and echoic memories are both types of very short-term sensory memories. Remember that iconic memory is visual and echoic memory is auditory; you can see an icon and hear an echo.

As for the answer choice about memory consolidation, consolidation is the process through which a memory becomes stable in the brain and does not have to do with iconic or echoic memories.

The primacy effect and the recency effect are termed the "serial position effects". The primacy effect is a phenomenon that allows one to remember information better that is initially presented to them (e.g., the beginning contents of a long list). The recency effect refers to the ability to better recall information presented last (e.g., information presented at the end of a long list).

Mnemonic devices are memory aids that seek to improve recall of information. Chunking is a popular memory aid that involves organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

Explicit memory refers to memories that can be consciously recalled. Semantic memory is memory about facts, like that Alaska is the largest state in the U.S. The other types of memory listed are types of implicit memory, which cannot be explicitly recalled.

Information only remains in our short-term memory for about 30 seconds. At the end of this time, this information is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

An episodic memory is a recollection of specific events, usually one's personal experiences. Remembering specific details is an example of semantic memory. Learning a skill, like tying a shoelace, is procedural memory. Mnemonic devices are a tool for remembering detailed information. Remembering words one doesn't understand through repetition is a prime example of rote memorization.

By including math problems in between memorization and recall, the experimenters were trying to avoid rehearsal-- the internal repetition of items to extend short term memory.

As for the other answers, chunking is clustering smaller items into larger groups to aid in memory, blocking is the failure to remember something even though it's in the memory, reconsolidation is changes in the memory that can occur when a memory is recalled, and flashbulb memories are vivid memories of shocking events.

Riding a bike is a type of procedural memory, the memory of a participating in a physical or cognitive process. Procedural memories are implicit (implied) rather than explicit (conscious).

Episodic memory is the memory for events in one's life (your 10th grade birthday party), and semantic memory is the memory for facts and knowledge (the first US president).

Priming is not a type of memory at all, but rather a method of affecting implicit memories in which exposure to one stimulus affects subsequent exposure to another stimulus. An example of priming might be that exposing someone to the word "rocket scientist" before taking a science test might make them get a higher score.