Theories of Motivation - AP Psychology

A secondary drive is something that can be learned by conditioning. Primary drives (thirst, hunger, sex, and intrinsic happiness) are innate drives that cannot be taught. Money is a secondary drive because humans do not feel the innate desire to collect pieces of paper; however, the value attached to money by our society gives that drive to people. The same can be said for things such as cars and other status symbols.

Edward Thorndike was a prominent American psychologist who proposed the law of effect, which posits that responses that are followed with a positive consequence are more likely to be repeated, as opposed to responses that are not reinforced. B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is primarily based on the law of effect.

Ed's action was impulsive, motivated solely by emotion to directly attack the source of his anger and cause him pain. Instrumental aggression is motivated by the prospect of some reward for such behavior, while passive aggression and relational aggression involve indirect attacks against a target's social standing or possessions (e.g. sabotage, humiliation).

Maslow believed that the ultimate destiny of mankind was self-actualization, or a tendency to become everything that one is capable of becoming. Maslow theorized that human existance is based on needs that arise in hierarchical order: basic physiological needs such as food; safey needs; love and belonging needs; self-respect and self-esteem needs; and self-actualization.

In order, Maslow's hierarchy of needs are physiological, safety, social/belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Physiological needs include water and food, safety needs include financial security and health, social/belonging needs include friendship and family, self-esteem needs include confidence and respect from others, self-actualization needs include the need to accomplish everything that a person feels he/she is capable of doing.

Maslow believed that all of the lower levels of the hierarchy needed to be met in order for someone to achieve the highest level: self-actualization.

A reward is something good for the students, while a punishment is something bad for them. A positive reward/punishment introduces something new into their environment (i.e. the classroom), while a negative reward/punishment removes something from their environment. Getting to leave class early is a good thing for the students that removes something unpleasant (here, the extra time spent in class) from their environment, so it is a negative reward.

These are four of Abraham Maslow's five needs. His theory regarding human motivation consists of a pyramid-like hierarchy of needs: physiological needs (hunger, thirst, health, sex, etc.), safety needs, belonging and love needs, esteem needs (approval and recognition), and self-acutalization needs (living up to one's own potential).

According to the Incentive Theory, motivation is based on positive and negative associations with stimuli. So, one is motivated to do something because of an associated reward or motivated to not do something because of an associated punishment.

The concept of the theory is in its name. The Drive-Reduction Theory reduces motivation to satisfying drives caused by biological needs. On a side-note, because of this simplification, many critics have argued that it fails to account for pleasure-seeking activities.

The Incentive Theory states that human behavior is motivated by rewards or punishments associated with stimuli.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs states that there are various levels of motivation that drive people. As a result, physiological needs must be satisfied before someone can pursue higher motivations. According to Maslow, self-actualization is the highest motivation that one can achieve.

Abraham Maslow is most famous for his theory about the hierarchy of needs, which states that people are motivated to fulfill a number of needs and once they fill one, they move to the next higher level need. The needs, in order are: physical needs, security needs, belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Homeostasis is the state of balance in the body. The hedonic principle is that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid/resist pain. Terror management theory describes the conflict between the desire to continue living and the knowledge that death is inevitable. Unconscious conflict is associated with Freud, not Maslow.

The order of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is as follows: physical needs, security needs, belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization. All of the scenarios in the answer choices follow that order besides "Thomas sacrificing food for the night to buy flowers for the girl he loves" because he is putting a physical need before the need for belongingness/companionship.

The stages of the sexual response cycle are as follows: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and refractory. The excitement phase involves erection, blood rushing to the genitals, and increases in heart rate. The plateau phase involves the secretion of genital fluid and maintained increased heart rate. Orgasm involves ejaculation, feelings of ecstasy, and vaginal contractions. The refractory phase involves normal heart rate and a time period in which orgasm cannot occur.

This question is mostly definitional- approach motivation involves seeking (approaching) positive events whereas avoidance motivation involves staying clear of (avoiding) negative events. Avoidance motivation is usually stronger in humans, but not necessarily better. Although people tend to have more of one type of motivation than the other, every person has some of both.

There are many types of psychological motivation, including intrinsic and extrinsic, conscious and unconscious, and approach and avoidance. Intrinsic motivation occurs when the action itself is beneficial, whereas extrinsic motivation occurs when the action can lead to a benefit. Conscious motivation is motivation that we are aware of, whereas unconscious motivation is motivation that affects us without our knowledge. Avoidance motivation is staying clear of negative things, whereas approach motivation is seeking positive things. Inherent motivation is not a key term used in psychology.

Justin enjoys playing baseball so much because of his genuine love and appreciation for the sport. He does not seem motivated by any external means such as money or the appraisal of his family and friends; therefore, Justin is experiencing intrinsic motivation—he is fueled by his desire to play baseball for the mere sake of playing baseball.

Although Cody is a very talented and skilled baseball player, he does not play baseball because he truly loves playing baseball—he plays to make money and to gain the approval of his father. Cody is not motivated to play baseball for the mere sake of playing baseball, he is experiencing extrinsic motivation—the desire to perform and behave in certain ways to obtain external rewards or avoid a threatened punishment.

Though it is not believed that Freud himself ever personally used this term, he did propose the concept of a “death drive,” which later psychologists deemed thanatos. Psychoanalytic psychologists believe "thanatos" is a person’s drive to suffer, in direct opposition to his or her desire to live ("eros"—termed libido when directed at creating life via sex). According to Freudian psychology, this tension and interaction between death instincts and life instincts drives human behavior.