Methods of Altering Consciousness - AP Psychology

The effects of hypnosis have the potential to last long after the session is over.

All individuals react differently to hypnosis and the effects are difficult to predict. Though it can reduce inhibitions, hypnosis cannot force a subject to do something they normally would not. Also, hypnosis is not a reliable method of extracting repressed memories, and there is no evidence to suggest it will allow one to remember past lives.

There are three primary theories of hypnosis.

Non-state, also known as "role theory," claims that hypnosis does not alter one's state of mind. Instead, the person undergoing hypnosis is acting out a particular role for a therapeutic benefit.

State theory asserts that a person does not have any agency in the matter of hypnosis. Rather, they are completely submerged in a different state of mind.

The third theory is dissocation, in which a person involuntarily decides to split their own consciousness.

There is no definitive proof to back up any of these claims, though hypnosis remains a popular way to treat a variety of disorders.

"Highly-suggestible" is the term for people who are more easily hypnotized.

There are many purposeful ways to induce an altered state of consciousness, but some accidental or pathological ones include infections, sleep deprivation, or psychosis. Some others are fasting, epilepsy, or traumatic experiences. An altered state of consciousness due to any of these is often an indicator of either a mental or physical health issue and should be addressed right away.

Priming refers to a person's ability to more quickly/accurately respond to previously asked questions, whether they remember them or not. This is closely related to the mere-exposure effect, which states that we are more likely to prefer familiar things than unfamiliar things.

Psychoactive drugs are any substances that alter behavior, mood, memory, or perception. Some are stimulants, such as the caffeine found in coffee. Others are depressants, such as alcohol.

Antagonists are a type of psychoactive drug. Psychoactive drugs are drugs that change the chemistry of the brain. There are two types that do this: antagonists and agonists. Agonists change the chemistry of the brain by mimicking neurotransmitters. Antagonists also change the chemistry of the brain, but they do not mimic neurotransmitters. Instead, they simply prevent neurotransmitters from entering receptor sites.

Opiates, such as heroin, are drugs derived from the opium poppy. These highly addictive substances are used as mood elevators and painkillers.

Alpha waves are a type of brain wave that occurs when a person is about to fall asleep. The person will be relaxed and unfocused but still aware of their surroundings.

To some degree, most individuals are open for suggestions; however, there are some that are more open to them than others. These individuals are more likely to be hypnotizable. For instance, this may be observed in the phenomenon known as postural sway. In this process, a group of individuals are lined up and told to stand straight with their eyes closed. Afterwards, a person will randomly call out individuals and tell them that they are swaying. It has been observed that people who are highly open to suggestion may begin to sway when they were not previously. These types of individuals are more likely to experience hypnosis.

Tolerance is what occurs when the effects of the same dose of drug diminishes over extended use. Upon repeated exposure, the brain will begin to adjust its chemistry to counteract the effects of the drug. Because exposure needs to be regular for tolerance to occur, the option about random exposure would be incorrect. It's common to observe those who have become tolerant to begin increasing their usual dose. This is a potential outcome of tolerance; therefore, this option is incorrect. While some drugs may have an affect on individuals upon exposure only once, this does not entail tolerance. This becomes a matter of an individual becoming "hooked" on the drug; therefore, this option would also be incorrect. When an individual decides to stop, the body may undergo withdrawal if the individual has developed a physical dependence and is addicted to the drug; thus, this answer is also incorrect.

The three categories of drugs that have been established are depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. Although an individual may seem lively with a small amount of alcohol, alcohol is actually a depressant. The liveliness comes from the fact that alcohol acts as a disinhibitor. This means it will act to slow down neural processing and brain activity responsible for judgment and inhibitions. As a result, people are more likely to act out in ways that they would not under unaffected judgment and conditions. Barbiturates are tranquilizers. These also fall under the category depressants; therefore, this would also be incorrect.

The three categories drugs may be organized into are depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. As a result, "suppressants" and "barbiturates" would be incorrect options. Opiates (i.e. opium, morphine, and heroin) may be considered depressants because they depress neural functions. As the nervous system is slowed, the individual may feel a sense of pleasure. In the meantime, pupils will constrict and breathing will slow down. These are not the effects of stimulants and hallucinogens; therefore, those options would be incorrect as well.

Stimulants are chemicals known to stimulate the nervous system. It will excite neural activity and body functions. Physiological effects include dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, an increase in blood sugar, and a resulting decrease in appetite that coincide with increased energy levels. LSD would not be considered a stimulant because it is a hallucinogen. This means that it will distort perception and create sensory images without the sensory stimulus.

Cocaine is considered to be a stimulant because it is known to excite neural processes and body functions. These effects have been observed in other stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine. Cocaine users will receive an immediate sense of euphoria because of the drug's ability to interfere with and deplete the brain's source of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. Within hours a crash will set in, this leaves the individual depressed and agitated.

Alcohol, prescription painkillers, tranquilizers, heroin, and others affect the nervous system in a depressive manner. This class of drugs generally lowers neurotransmitter levels and decreases central nervous system functions.

Amphetamine is an excitatory drug that affects the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. Alcohol and morphine are depressants, whereas LSD and psilocybin are hallucinogens.

Amphetamines affect the neurotransmitter dopamine, which has a direct link to alertness and circadian rhythms. Amphetamines are also stimulatory; therefore, they can aid in increasing metabolism.

Cocaine is excitatory and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.