Excretory and Digestive Physiology - Anatomy

As chyme enters the small intestine, the pancreas will release bicarbonate ions. This not only helps lower the acidity of the chyme that has just left the stomach, but also allows enzymes in the small intestine to be at their ideal pH when functioning.

Proteases, such as chymotrypsin, break down proteins and hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach contributes to the acidity of the stomach contents.

The liver is capable of storing glucose from carbohydrates when blood sugar levels are normal or elevated. This is accomplished by the process of converting glucose to glycogen in the liver, or glycogenesis. Once the blood sugars are low, the liver will convert glycogen back to glucose in a process called glycogenolysis. Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules, such as amino acids and triglycerides. Deglutition is simply the technical term for swallowing, and is not involved in glucose metabolism.

The liver has a variety of functions including carbohydrate metabolism and storage, as well as blood detoxification. Most hepatocytes have a developed smooth endoplasmic reticulum to facilitate detoxification or wastes absorbed from the blood. Glucose is also taken from the blood and dimerized to create glycogen. Digested proteins are also carried to the protein for metabolism. Once fully dissociated, the amino acids of digested proteins can be used to build new molecules.

Although the liver produces bile, it does not store it. Bile storage is the function of the gall bladder.

In the pancreas, islets of Langerhans are collections of alpha, beta, and gamma endocrine cells (these are most numerous in the tail of the pancreas). Beta cells are more centrally located and are responsible for insulin secretion. Alpha cells are peripherally located and release glucagon, while delta cells are interspersed and release somatostatin. Chromaffin cells are located in the adrenal medulla and produce catecholamines.

The liver detoxifies everything we consume and thus must have the ability to regenerate the damage from such intense metabolism. The liver converts fat soluble toxins to water soluble ones so that they can be secreted in urine. It also manages by products of regular digestion such as converting the ammonia formed from protein digestion into urea.

Pancreatic function is crucial for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK). Toxins, such as alcohol, have the potential to harm the pancreas, leaving it non-functional. Best treatment in this person would be to stop alcohol consumption, and to administer the deficient vitamins and pancreatic enzymes to replace those that are not working.

This patient most likely has vitamin B12 deficiency. B12 is found in meats and thus a vegan individual would be deficiency in this vitamin. It takes several years to develop B12 deficiency because the liver can store B12 for a few years before signs and symptoms present of the deficiency. B12 deficiency is associated with neurological symptoms (peripheral neuropath) and macrocytic/megaloblastic anemia. B9 also presents with megaloblastic/macrocytic anemia but it does not have neurological signs or symptoms. Additionally, B9 is found in green vegetables and there is nothing in the patient's history to suggest B9 deficiency. B6 presents as sideroblastic anemia.

The human kidney has many functions, all of which are important for sustaining life. The kidney controls blood osmolarity by filtering, reabsorbing, and secreting various ions found throughout the body. The kidney controls fluid volume in the body by this same mechanism. Additionally, the kidney produces erythropoietin and renin which stimulate the production of red blood cells and convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, respectively.

The renal capsule is the outermost structure of the kidney. It is the fibrous connective tissue kidney structure that directly surrounds the renal cortex, and is surrounded by a layer of adipose tissue that protects the kidney from trauma. The renal pyramids, renal sinus, and renal medulla are located deep within the kidney.

The urine made within the kidney drains out from the renal pelvis and down the ureter to ultimately be stored in the bladder.

A very large loss of from the patient will lead to a drastic decrease in pH. Therefore, all alkalosis disorders can be ruled out. Additionally, because the pH decrease is unrelated to an increase in carbon dioxide, it is not a respiratory issue - leaving only metabolic acidosis as a diagnosis. Cystic fibrosis involves the overproduction of thick mucous, which causes severe respiratory pathology; other systems are affected too, but excess bicarbonate secretion is not associated with this genetic disease.

Obstruction bilaterally in the ureters leads to decreased GFR due to increased pressure retrograde from the ureters. Bowman space pressure increases to override the GFR pressure. Bowman space pressure does not favor filtration versus GFR pressure (favors filtration).

Serum osmolality is best estimated at around

The human kidney has many functions, all of which are important for sustaining life. The kidney controls blood osmolarity by filtering, reabsorbing, and secreting various ions found throughout the body. The kidney controls fluid volume in the body by this same mechanism. Additionally, the kidney produces erythropoietin and renin which stimulate the production of red blood cells and convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, respectively.

The renal capsule is the outermost structure of the kidney. It is the fibrous connective tissue kidney structure that directly surrounds the renal cortex, and is surrounded by a layer of adipose tissue that protects the kidney from trauma. The renal pyramids, renal sinus, and renal medulla are located deep within the kidney.

The urine made within the kidney drains out from the renal pelvis and down the ureter to ultimately be stored in the bladder.

A very large loss of from the patient will lead to a drastic decrease in pH. Therefore, all alkalosis disorders can be ruled out. Additionally, because the pH decrease is unrelated to an increase in carbon dioxide, it is not a respiratory issue - leaving only metabolic acidosis as a diagnosis. Cystic fibrosis involves the overproduction of thick mucous, which causes severe respiratory pathology; other systems are affected too, but excess bicarbonate secretion is not associated with this genetic disease.

Obstruction bilaterally in the ureters leads to decreased GFR due to increased pressure retrograde from the ureters. Bowman space pressure increases to override the GFR pressure. Bowman space pressure does not favor filtration versus GFR pressure (favors filtration).

Serum osmolality is best estimated at around