B-cells produce antibodies (a subset of adaptive immunity called humoral immunity). The usual sequence involves B-cell activation via interleukins from helper T-lymphocytes, which cause the B-cell to undergo mitosis, creating numerous clones that will differentiate into plasma cells (rapid antibody producers) or memory B-cells.

B-cells produce antibodies (a subset of adaptive immunity called humoral immunity). The usual sequence involves B-cell activation via interleukins from helper T-lymphocytes, which cause the B-cell to undergo mitosis, creating numerous clones that will differentiate into plasma cells (rapid antibody producers) or memory B-cells.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of receptors found within innate immune antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages. These receptors recognize specific elements of various infectious agents such as lipopolysaccharides, DNA, and RNA. Binding and activation of these receptors stimulates inflammatory responses and CD4/CD8 T-cell responses to drive an effective immune response.

TLRs do not control B-cell clonal selection, the process by which B-cells replicate to amplify the production of a certain antibody.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of receptors found within innate immune antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages. These receptors recognize specific elements of various infectious agents such as lipopolysaccharides, DNA, and RNA. Binding and activation of these receptors stimulates inflammatory responses and CD4/CD8 T-cell responses to drive an effective immune response.

TLRs do not control B-cell clonal selection, the process by which B-cells replicate to amplify the production of a certain antibody.

Antibodies (or immunoglobulins) are produced by B-leukocytes and plasma cells, and are a key part of humoral (having to do with bodily fluids) immunity. As such, they can be found in several of the fluids circulating or exiting the body. Some types of immunoglobulins can even cross the placenta or be secreted in breast milk to pass immunity from a mother to her child.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules are found on virtually all cells in the body. They function in routine immune monitoring through presentation of short peptide fragments derived from degradation of intracellular proteins contained within the cell. The T-cell receptor on cytotoxic T-cells interacts with MHC class I, and if a foreign pathogen or peptide is presented, the cytotoxic T-cell becomes activated to kill infected cells. The same system also functions for detection of potential cancer cells.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules are found on virtually all cells in the body. They function in routine immune monitoring through presentation of short peptide fragments derived from degradation of intracellular proteins contained within the cell. The T-cell receptor on cytotoxic T-cells interacts with MHC class I, and if a foreign pathogen or peptide is presented, the cytotoxic T-cell becomes activated to kill infected cells. The same system also functions for detection of potential cancer cells.

Antibodies (or immunoglobulins) are produced by B-leukocytes and plasma cells, and are a key part of humoral (having to do with bodily fluids) immunity. As such, they can be found in several of the fluids circulating or exiting the body. Some types of immunoglobulins can even cross the placenta or be secreted in breast milk to pass immunity from a mother to her child.

Acquired, or adaptive, immunity is a second immune defense system and develops slowly after exposure to an initial infection. As a result, the immune system is "trained" and capable of recognizing many specific components or antigens from the pathogen. Acquired immunity stores the information from an initial infection in preparation for reintroduction of the pathogen; it does not immediately respond to the initial infection.

Upon reinfection or exposure to a pathogen, the acquired immunity is better able to detect and defend the body. This includes the generation of antibodies that can bind a pathogen and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes that can detect and eliminate infected cells.

Acquired immunity is balanced by innate immunity, which responds indiscriminately to all pathogens. Innate immunity is essential for fighting and preventing initial infections, before adaptive immunity has learned to recognize the specific pathogen present.

Acquired, or adaptive, immunity is a second immune defense system and develops slowly after exposure to an initial infection. As a result, the immune system is "trained" and capable of recognizing many specific components or antigens from the pathogen. Acquired immunity stores the information from an initial infection in preparation for reintroduction of the pathogen; it does not immediately respond to the initial infection.

Upon reinfection or exposure to a pathogen, the acquired immunity is better able to detect and defend the body. This includes the generation of antibodies that can bind a pathogen and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes that can detect and eliminate infected cells.

Acquired immunity is balanced by innate immunity, which responds indiscriminately to all pathogens. Innate immunity is essential for fighting and preventing initial infections, before adaptive immunity has learned to recognize the specific pathogen present.