The Roman Empire lasted for almost a thousand years as the preemiment military and political power in Europe. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to Syria, Spain to Eastern Europe, and throughout North Africa; however, from about the fourth century CE onwards, Roman power was in decline. There are a myriad of reasons why the Roman Empire fell, and each historian has his or her own theory, but the most important reasons are as follows: barbarian invasions, as Germanic tribes sacked Rome and other imperial cities; economic stagnation, as Romans became overreliant on slave labor; weak leadership from a series of poor and ineffectual emperors; the rise of Christianity eroding traditional Roman values and systems of power; and overexpansion, as the empire simply became too vast to effectively maintain and police.

The Peleponessian War (431-404 BCE) completely transformed Greek politics, economics, and culture. The war pitted the democratic Athens and its similarly minded allies with authoritarian Sparta and its allies, which saw the entirety of ancient Greece divided along geographic and philosophical lines in a contested series of cil wars. Sparta's eventual victory in the conflict made Athens destitute and greatly weakened their allies as well, restructuring the power based of the entire Greek lands.

The Roman Empire lasted for almost a thousand years as the preemiment military and political power in Europe. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to Syria, Spain to Eastern Europe, and throughout North Africa; however, from about the fourth century CE onwards, Roman power was in decline. There are a myriad of reasons why the Roman Empire fell, and each historian has his or her own theory, but the most important reasons are as follows: barbarian invasions, as Germanic tribes sacked Rome and other imperial cities; economic stagnation, as Romans became overreliant on slave labor; weak leadership from a series of poor and ineffectual emperors; the rise of Christianity eroding traditional Roman values and systems of power; and overexpansion, as the empire simply became too vast to effectively maintain and police.

The Peleponessian War (431-404 BCE) completely transformed Greek politics, economics, and culture. The war pitted the democratic Athens and its similarly minded allies with authoritarian Sparta and its allies, which saw the entirety of ancient Greece divided along geographic and philosophical lines in a contested series of cil wars. Sparta's eventual victory in the conflict made Athens destitute and greatly weakened their allies as well, restructuring the power based of the entire Greek lands.

Ancient Greece developed many philosophies that continue to influence the world today. One of these is Humanism, the belief that reason is more important than piety and that people, not a deity or deities, were at the center of the universe.

Prior to the Fall of Rome, the Roman Empire had fractured into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire around 280 CE. The Western Roman Empire crumbled under the difficulties of administering such a diverse empire and was practically defeated in the fifth century after being subjected to a wave of barbarian attacks on Rome, most notably attacks by the Visigoths and the Vandals (from whom we get the word "vandalism"). The Eastern Roman Empire would be persevered for another thousand years and has come to be called the Byzantine Empire by posterity.

Ancient Greece developed many philosophies that continue to influence the world today. One of these is Humanism, the belief that reason is more important than piety and that people, not a deity or deities, were at the center of the universe.

Prior to the Fall of Rome, the Roman Empire had fractured into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire around 280 CE. The Western Roman Empire crumbled under the difficulties of administering such a diverse empire and was practically defeated in the fifth century after being subjected to a wave of barbarian attacks on Rome, most notably attacks by the Visigoths and the Vandals (from whom we get the word "vandalism"). The Eastern Roman Empire would be persevered for another thousand years and has come to be called the Byzantine Empire by posterity.

Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher and a student of Plato. He is most famous for establishing a system of logic that continues to be relevant to this day. The term Aristotelian Logic is named after him and was the dominant form of logical understanding up to the beginning of the Twentieth Century.

As Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world in the fourth century BCE, he left behind thoroughly Hellenized rulers in all of the places he conquered. In Egypt, he left behind the Ptolemaic dynasty, named after its progenitor Ptolemy I Soter, which replaced the traditional Pharoahs and then demanded to be called the Pharoahs themselves. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt until it was conquered by Rome under Augustus in 30 BCE.