While Queen Elizabeth I’s efforts to establish religious toleration within her country were largely quite successful, it was of course impossible for her to ensure the agreement of every English citizen. Elizabeth I’s Act of Supremacy angered and distressed not just some English Catholics but also Catholics across Western Europe, including those in Spain and Scotland, who felt that the Queen was polluting the Catholic faith through her Anglican Church. Throughout her long reign, the Queen faced numerous assassination attempts made on her life by Catholic assassins (who were either Catholic themselves or hired by internal/external Catholic forces). Spanish Catholics even attempted to murder Elizabeth I and replace her with her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. Elizabeth I also faced opposition from other, less prominent, and less numerous religious groups. The Puritans – aka Presbyterians – were loyal to the essential concept of Anglicanism but they objected to some of the Catholic rituals that the national faith had retained. Elizabeth I acted shrewdly so as not to alienate the Puritans; she allowed them to form their own separate worshiping societies so long as they agreed not to challenge her position of ultimate power. The Congregationalists posed a bit more difficulty. These individuals were former Puritans who had left that group due to their more radical ideas and they refused to acknowledge Elizabeth I’s control over the Anglican Church or over England itself. Faced with such a seemingly anarchist threat, Elizabeth I and Parliament passed the Conventicle Act in 1593, which informed all Congregationalists that they must return to the Anglican Church on the penalty of exile or execution.

Peter the Great was a great modernizing force in Russian society. He implemented many reforms in an attempt to make Russia more westernized. He also centralized authority under his Tsarist regime and extended freedoms and civil liberties to women. Notable he made dramatic improvements to the Russian navy and even constructed the city of St. Petersburg so that Russia might have an important port city in the Baltic. He was not, however, committed to making Russia a constitutional monarchy. Rather he preserved and strengthened the institutions of his own autocratic rule.

Just as King Louis XIV of France was determined to establish supremacy and security along France’s borders, he was equally as determined to control every inch of French political, social, and economic life. In his eyes, absolute control would bring him absolute power. In keeping with this mindset, Louis decided that the best way to keep order over his subjects was to embark on a campaign of religious conformity; by eradicating religious dissent, he believed he would partially rid his nation of any political dissent as well. To that end, Louis implemented many repressive religious policies and also banned outright several religious orders, such as the popular Jansenists. While many of these methods stirred up opposition amongst isolated patches of the French population, they didn’t provoke widespread popular discontent. But Louis made a terrible miscalculation in 1685 which entirely changed the status quo. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had permitted French Catholics (known as Huguenots) to worship freely, and began to crack down on Huguenots in particular. His revocation of the Edict of Nantes outraged many French citizens, even those individuals who were not Huguenots but who nevertheless had regarded the historic Edict as a valuable peacekeeping tool that had prevented religious warfare in the country for many decades. Fearing for their liberties and personal safety, Huguenots left France in droves, which caused the economy to suffer greatly. Opposition to the revocation also arose outside France as well, as Protestants all across Europe began to consider Louis a dangerous threat to religious toleration and coexistence. Essentially, the revocation put a target on King Louis XIV’s back, one that was visible from both within and without his country’s borders.

In the wake of the English Civil War, Parliament invited William and Mary to rule over the nation, but insisted that they agree to the Declaration of Right, which outlined rights of the people, before they could take the throne.

Coined by the incident in 1618 Prague that sparked the Thirty Years War, defenestration is the act of throwing someone out of a window. The Catholic ruling power of Bohemia allowed religious freedom to its largely Protestant inhabitants after the 1609 issuing of the Letter of Majesty. After his ascension to the throne of Bohemia in 1617, Ferdinand II ordered the cancelation of Protestant churches under construction. Catholic representatives of the crown met with local Protestant estate owners at a local meeting hall in Prague, to deliver them with the King's order. When the Protestant demanded an immediate reply of the Catholics' superiors, they denied. The irate Protestants then threw them out of the three story window.

King James II was dethroned and William, Prince of Orange and his wife Mary, daughter of James II, were made co-regents, king and queen. This change in power also resulted in the English Bill of Rights, which predates the American Bill of Rights by about 100 years.

The Swedish Empire reached its peak in 1658 reigning over modern day Sweden, Estonia, Finland and parts of Norway. Through King Adolphus superior military leadership funded by an efficient government Sweden became the largest nation in Europe behind Russian and Spain. Years of military dominance birthed a coalition of anti-Sweden forces led by Russia known as the Great Northern War (1701-1721), which stripped Sweden of its formerly conquered territories.

In 1628 Parliament passed the Petition of Right, which set out guidelines for subjects on which the king had limited or no authority. The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the American Constitution. Declaration of Rights refers to the 1776 American political document. The Treaty of Paris refers to the document that ended the American Revolutionary War.

After King Charles II died in 1685, his brother James II became the new King of England. Immediately, Parliament was put on the defensive both because of James’s public support for English Catholics and his own recent public conversion to Catholicism. When Parliament refused to repeal the discriminatory Test Act, James dissolved the legislative body and appointed his own Catholic officials instead. The situation took another dire turn when James issued the 1687 Declaration of Indulgence, repealing the Test Act and allowing religious toleration, which was followed by the imprisonment of several oppositional Anglican clergy. It seemed that Parliament’s worst fears about their King and Catholics were coming true. The final straw came on June 20th, 1688, when James’s wife (who was also Catholic) gave birth to a baby boy. This sent Parliament into panic-mode – there was now a Catholic male heir to the English throne, who seemed poised to create a Catholic ruling dynasty in England. The frightened Parliament decided it had only one option to maintain its Anglican hold on the country: James would have to be removed from power and replaced with a Protestant ruler. In a bold and unprecedented move, Parliament wrote to William III of Orange, the current leader of the United Province of the Netherlands and a devout Protestant, and invited him to assemble his army, invade England, and evict James from the throne! This event, which succeeded, came to be known as the Glorious Revolution.

James II ascended to the English throne in 1685 and ruled for three years before he was peacefully deposed in the so-called Glorious Revolution. James II was not a very palatable choice for monarch, from parliament’s perspective, due to the fact that he was an absolutist and a Catholic. The English Parliament, fresh from their victory in the English Civil War, refused to accept James II’s reign and invited William of Orange (the ruler of the Netherlands) to ascend the throne. William, and his wife Mary, became King and Queen of England in exchange for passing the English Bill of Rights, which, among other things, guaranteed the supremacy of Parliament.