The Tokugawa Period (also called the Edo Period) of Japanese history lasted from 1603 until 1868 (and the Meiji Restoration). Prior to the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate political power in Japan was heavily decentralized and the country was ruled and administered by various warlords and wealthy landowners. The Tokugawa Shogunate united the country and brought to an end the fractious rule of feudalism.

After William the Conqueror took control of the Kingdom of England he organized his new territory into a tightly-controlled feudal system. William concentrated power in his own hands and ensured that only nobles loyal to his reign could hold land, titles, and power. In 1086 William compiled the Domesday Book, which was sort of like a census, to provide a full account of his holdings in England.

Ghana was the most powerful region of West Africa during much of the Middle Ages. Most notably, the powerful Ashanti Empire was formed in Ghana in the thirteenth century. Other powerful empires in the region include the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire.

In Islamic tradition, the Caliph is the legitimate ruler of the entire political, religious, and social community of Islamic people. Caliphs exist in both the Sunni and Shiite tradition, however these two denominations disagree on how the Caliph should be chosen and who he is. The Caliph is said to govern the Ummah, or the community of Islamic worshippers in the world.

The circle of justice was first developed in the Middle East during the classical era and was reinforced by the emergence of Islam in the seventh century. According to the circle of justice, a ruler owed justice to his subjects, his subjects paid taxes to the treasury, the treasury provided funding for the army, and the army protected the authority of the ruler. Collectively, it delineated the social duty and responsibility of all members of society and provided a unifying social force and justification for the rule of caliphs and emperors.

Russia’s dynastic system is quite unique among the global history of dynasties, ruling families, and other related monarchical systems. Only two dynasties have ever ruled Russia: the (now infamous and much romanticized) Romanov dynasty and the Ruriks, who ruled the country before the Romanovs’ ascendency. The historical record is a bit murky as to the truth of the Rurik dynasty’s origins but they ruled over Russia for several centuries and are credited with establishing the tsarist system of government. This tsarism was later inherited by the Romanovs, who succeeded the Ruriks in 1613 and saw fit to maintain much of the Ruriks’ authoritarian tendencies.

During the Heian period of Japanese history (usually referred to as Japan’s classical era), the emperor possessed almost no real power. He was a symbolic figurehead and a chancellor ruled in his place. The Fujiwara clan gained control of the chancellorship in the ninth century and ruled as Japan’s de facto ruling family until near the end of the Heian period.

During the High Middle Ages, England and France were the two most stable nations in Europe. In this case, “stable” means able to resist barbarian invasion and subject to fewer civil wars and power struggles between the upper classes.

During the Heian period of Japanese history much of the power was concentrated in the hands of the wealthy Fujiwara clan. The Fujiwara clan was able to marry into imperial house of Japan and control national politics to suit their interests.

The English Parliament first emerged in the decades after the signing of the Magna Carta. It grew in influence over the thirteenth century and soon began competing for power with the monarchy. By the seventeenth century, the situation had become untenable and the English Civil War broke out. After the English Civil War, the supremacy of Parliament was firmly and finally established by the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the Bill of Rights in 1689.