In this case, the bell's ringing ends before the food is presented; therefore, it would be best described as "trace conditioning." If the bell were still ringing when the food was presented, then this would be described as "delayed conditioning," which has the most powerful response. In "backward conditioning," the unconditioned stimulus is presented before the conditioned stimulus. Also, in "simultaneous conditioning," the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus are presented at the same time.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has a number of symptoms, including a failure to habituate to repeated neutral stimuli, chronically high levels of emotional arousal, and a fear of aversive conditioned stimuli. When the hippocampus is over-aroused, its ability to preserve conscious aspects of memory may be compromised. Each of these factors is associated with PTSD and each can have a significant impact on the function of memory.

Learning-disabled children are not lower in general intellect. The definition of a learning disability is adequate performance in some areas (e.g. mathematics or language) along with poor performance in another area (e.g. reading). Deficits in cognitive mapping and visual-spatial information processing are more likely attributable to a developmental disability due to a genetic disorder such as Down’s syndrome. Learning-disabled children, as compared to children without learning disabilities, may struggle at any stage of information processing from attention disorders to information encoding or retrieval.

The recency effect occurs because there is less time to forget the words at the end of a list, as opposed to words at the beginning or in the middle of a list.

The sensory store is the first step of perception. It gathers all of the sensory information that is coming in through the five senses. Attention towards particular stimuli brings them out of the sensory store and into working memory/short-term memory. The rest of the sensory infomation decays very rapidly.

It is hypothesized that anchoring, rehearsal, and interference may all play a role in the serial-position effect. Anchoring refers to the tendency to latch onto the beginning and end of items in a list as “anchors” for memory. Rehearsal theories state that participants recall more items in the beginning and end because there is less competition for memory at that stage. Interference theories point to the disruption of learning when items in the middle of the list interfere with each other.

Respondent behaviors occur as automatic responsees to stimuli. For example, dogs salivate in response to food, so the salivation is a respondent behavior. Additionally, the knee-jerk reflex is a popular example of a respondent behavior in humans.

Scientific studies of learning tend to rely on objective evidence of a quantifiable and relatively permanent change in behavior. In other words, the result of learning must be capable of being empirically observed and measured. Neuroscience is making huge strides in mapping changes to the brain that occur as a result of learning, but most learning is still not visible through brain imaging. The scientific method does not rely on subjective experiences.

If people are engaged in negative thoughts, worried, preoccupied about their performance, or being self-critical while attempting to learn, then they are very likely to experience impairment to working memory. This is because these types of thoughts impose limits on attention resources. None of the other answers are true because anxiety increases arousal.

In learning and memory, the term “categorical clustering” refers to the tendency for recall of a list to increase when the list is constructed so that the words come from the same semantic categories. For example, a list is easier to recall when the words are related to each other, such as types of food or animals.