The Sejm is the Polish Parliament. Historically members were elected by popular vote of landed nobility. Today it is elected by universal ballot.

Cholera proved to be one of the largest problems of the rapid urbanization and industrialization of the nineteenth century. Its spread was kept unchecked for two different but related reasons: its prevalence among the working poor and the incorrect beleif about its method of spreading. Most medical authorities of the time insisted it was caused by foul-smelling air in cities rather than the contaminated water supplies that actually spread cholera.

Louis Pasteur was a French scientist who in the nineteenth century discovered that heating beer was enough to kill the bacteria that was responsible for causing the beer to go bad. His process of pasteurization allowed food to be preserved far more effectively and completely revolutionized the dairy industry, among others.

Louis XVI was the last King of France before the Revolution. He was arrested and executed in 1793. His son, also named Louis, lived until 1795 when he died of illness. However he was never crowned king and therefore is not included in the list of Kings of France.

The May 3rd Constitution reinstated the hereditary monarchy as Poland's system of government. The intention was to place one strong family that could not be bought or bullied as the head of Poland's failing government. That way they could end the decades of corruption and outside influences that had brought Poland to the brink of destruction; however, this new system only served to be Poland's downfall as its more powerful neighbor did not want to see Poland become powerful again, so rather than allow the new government to become established, they partitioned Poland and annexed its territory.

All of these theories emerged during the Enlightenment except for the Divine Right of Kings, which had its origins in the autocratic monarchies of the centuries that preceded the Enlightenment. The Divine Right of Kings stated that the right of the king to rule was divinely ordained by God and that to resist the king was therefore to resist the will of God.

The Decembrist Uprising began when Tsar Alexander I died with an unclear succession plan, leading to confusion in the Russian leadership. A group of Russian Army officers, calling themselves "The Union of Salvation," took the chance to try and overthrow the Tsarist regime entirely, promoting serious electoral and governmental reforms. All of the leaders of the revolt, who were called Decembrists for the month in which the revolt took place, were executed by Tsar Nicholas I in early 1826.

All of these theories emerged during the Enlightenment except for the Divine Right of Kings, which had its origins in the autocratic monarchies of the centuries that preceded the Enlightenment. The Divine Right of Kings stated that the right of the king to rule was divinely ordained by God and that to resist the king was therefore to resist the will of God.

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a continent-wide conflict that managed to ensnare every great European power of the time, initially with the Catholic Holy Roman Empire facing off against various Protestant states. A major turning point occurred in 1630, when Swedish armies led by King Gustavus Adolphus managed to turn the tide against the Imperial forces. After his death in the Battle of Lützen in 1632, the Protestant side faced serious setbacks against the Catholic armies of the Holy Roman Empire, and the end of the war with the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was largely based around settlements that were a setback from the heights of Sweden's power under Gustavus Adolphus.

The principal aims of Stalin's five-year plans were to develop a strong industrial economy centered on steel production, develop a powerful state army, increase agricultural production, and create a more socialist society. The development of artistic and literary talents was not one of the primary aims. In fact, Soviet art and literature became highly political during this era and was heavily influenced by propaganda.