Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BCE) - Ancient History: Egypt

A hieroglyph is an ancient form of writing in which pictures represent words, syllables, or sounds. Hieroglyphs emerged during the Neolithic Era and have served as a means for archaeologists to learn about ancient Egypt. These pictures can be found on artifacts, on rocks, and on the walls of pyramids.

The ancient Egyptian civilization first emerged along the banks of the Nile River approximately eight thousand years ago. The first settled agricultural communities appeared around 6,000 BCE. The Egyptian people depended on the Nile River for their survival.

Libya is located to the west of Egypt, in the north of the Saharan Desert, on the North African shores of the Mediterranean. Libya was an important rival to Egypt throughout Egyptian history, but especially during the latter years. Libya actually conquered Egypt during the Third Intermediate Period and ruled as the twenty-second and twenty-third dynasties.

The first full sentence written in hieroglyphics dates back to the Second Dynasty of the Early Dynastic Era. This period gave Egypt a strong sense of identity which included among other things the introduction of complex irrigation systems and centralized power in the form of a king. While hieroglyphics existed before the Early Dynastic Period, they are considered photo-hieroglyphics.

The Ennead is a group of nine Gods who feature in the creation story of Heliopolis. Usually the Ennead is comprised of Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. Due to the importance of Horus in the ancient Egyptian story of creation, he was sometimes included as a tenth deity.

Egyptian religious belief was neither geographically uniform, nor unchanged over time. Different Egyptian cities had different understandings of the origin of the Gods and the creation of the universe, and so had diverse religious practices. Similarly, Egyptian civilization survived for such a long period of time that there was ample opportunity for religious growth, change, and reformation. At various times in Egyptian history, different Gods found themselves in the ascendancy.

The Ogdoad was a group of eight Gods worshipped by the Hermopolis theologians. The Hermopolis story of creation is one of a few different ancient Egyptian interpretations of the origins of the universe.

The eight Gods of the Ogdoad are generally presented in four divine couplets: Nun and Naunet; Amun and Amaunet; Huh and Hauhet; Kuk and Kauket. Of these Gods, Seth, Aten, and Nephtys do not belong on this list.

The Ennead arrangement of Gods features in the creation story of Heliopolis. In predynastic and early dynastic times, different ancient Egyptian communities had differing explanations regarding the origin of the Gods and the creation of the universe. These distinctions continued in Pharaonic times, so that each major Egyptian city had a slightly different understanding of cosmology.

Archaeological evidence provided by female burial tombs suggests that they were generally designed for the same purpose as male burial tombs — to provide for the deceased in the next life. Most Egyptologists contend that the ancient Egyptians believed in a shared afterlife, open to both men and women who had lived a virtuous and “light-hearted” life.

Bearing the head of an Ibis, Thoth is known as the god of writing and counting. He is often depicted with a moon crescent as well. Neith is the goddess of war and hunting. Hathor is the goddess of women. Bastet is the war goddess and Re is the sun god.

Over the course of its existence, Ancient Egypt grew to encompass not only the entire Nile Valley and Delta, but also nearly the entire north-east of the African continent, finally stopping only at the edge of the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River Valley was the definitive and central location of the Empire – oftentimes, it is referred to as the veritable heart of the Egyptian civilization. The Nile Valley was crucial because of its unique concentration of many valuable natural resources, including animals, fish, stone, gold, minerals, and fertile soil – all of which were absolutely necessary to the survival of the Egyptian people. In some ways, the Nile River Valley is comparable to the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia, for it was in the Nile Valley in which North-East Africa’s first stable living settlements and sustainable agricultural practices initially emerged.

Most major Ancient Egyptian structures—from pyramids and temples to courthouses and palaces—were built in close proximity to the Nile River. While at first glance, this structural clustering might seem arbitrary or random, this phenomenon was not at all accidental. The Ancient Egyptians wisely turned the Nile’s immense length and steady current to their advantage by using the River as their primary means of transporting building materials. Not only was this method much faster than any of the other contemporary options, but it also allowed for the relatively easy transport of especially heavy materials, including the limestone, granite, and sandstone used to construct pyramids, temples, and sculptures.

The archaeological site at Merimde Beni Salama is important because it provides evidence used to date the formation of agricultural settlements in ancient Egypt. The ruins at Merimde Beni Salama date to approximately 5,000 BCE. Merimde Beni Salama is the earliest known agricultural settlement in ancient Egypt, so it tells us that the ancient Egyptians began practicing agriculture at least as early as 5,000 BCE.

Merimde Beni Salama is an archaeological site in Egypt. It is one of the earliest known agricultural settlements in Egypt. Pottery found at Merimde Beni Salama appears to be of Near Eastern origin and indicates that predynastic Egyptians traded with the Levant. Some Egyptologists and archaeologists disagree, however, and claim that the pottery is evidence that the inhabitants of Merimde Beni Salama emigrated from the Levant.

Many predynastic communities arose in ancient Egypt around the cult worship of one or more Egyptian deities. The association between a society and a particular deity was important for the construction of a communal identity. The city-state of Nekhen (also called Hierakonpolis) most likely developed around the cult worship of Horus.

Many predynastic Egyptian societies developed around the cult worship of a particular deity. This communal worship helped promote a group mentality within these nascent cultures. The Naqada city-state was one of the most important societies that would eventually lead to a unified Upper Egyptian state. Most Egyptologists believe that the Naqada society developed around the cult worship of Seth.

According to archeologists, the earliest documented sample of papyrus paper dates all the way back to the First Dynasty, sometime during the Predynastic Period. As a writing medium, papyrus was infinitely preferable to stone, due to its strength, lightness, durability, and portability. Over time, Ancient Egyptian craftsmen fine-tuned their rigorous process of transforming the raw marsh weed into a suitable piece of writing paper. Papyrus’s inherent versatility allowed it to also be utilized in the formation of chairs, tables, boxes, ropes, and even boats. Astonishingly, several papyrus documents and scrolls have survived to this day – such as the famed Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus and the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.

Prior to the Neolithic Revolution in Egypt, nutrition was obtained in one of three ways — hunting, gathering, and fishing. After the advent of agriculture, both fishing and gathering continued to be both profitable and common, however, hunting (as a means of providing sustenance) largely died out. Archaeological evidence suggests that hunting still retained a ritualistic purpose throughout much of ancient Egyptian history.