Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BCE) - Ancient History: Egypt

The 31st Dynasty was established by the Persian Emperor Artaxerxes III in 343 BCE. It began when Artaxerxes III led the Persian reconquest of Egypt and declared himself Pharaoh. It came to an end less than two decades later with the conquests of Alexander the Great.

Cleopatra was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic (Greek) Kingdom in Egypt. She ruled Egypt in the first century BCE, and was defeated by the Roman Empire. Her defeat brought to an end the rule of the Pharaohs in Egypt and began the prolonged period of Roman occupation.

One of the four varieties of Egyptian writing scripts, Coptic initially emerged during the first century CE. It quickly rose in popularity due to its inclusion of Greek letters and its display of vowels, both of which made Coptic much more user-friendly than past scripts. Although it eventually fell out of use sometime between 1100 and 1500 CE, it is still used today in Christian churches throughout Egypt (this particular faith is otherwise known as Coptic Christianity).

The two earlier varieties of Egyptian script, Hieroglyphics and Hieratic, were each somewhat difficult to reproduce and casually recognize. Accordingly, the third style, known as Demotic, came into use during the eighth century CE. Unlike its two predecessors, Demotic was not pictorial in nature; instead, it was a simple, abbreviated version of Hieratic script that was very easily and swiftly produced and read. It quickly became the favored script for nearly all of Egypt’s literate classes, including scribes, merchants, priests, and other individuals whose professions necessitated their use of written language.

During the Late Period, and other times in Egyptian history (such as the New Kingdom and possibly the Middle Kingdom), formal education was available for a small number of people within Egyptian society. Primarily, formal education was extended to male elites and the sons of government officials. This ensured that only a tiny fraction of the population was literate, never more than one or two percent.

The Books of Breathing became popular in Egypt during the Late Period (probably during the so-called Saite Revival). They are prominent examples of Late Period funerary texts and may be understood as a continuation of the tradition of the earlier Egyptian Book of the Dead and other such funerary texts.

A hieroglyph is an ancient form of writing in which pictures represent words, syllables, or sounds. Hieroglyphs emerged during the Neolithic Era and have served as a means for archaeologists to learn about ancient Egypt. These pictures can be found on artifacts, on rocks, and on the walls of pyramids.

The Second Intermediate Period lasted from 1,650 BCE until 1,550 BCE It began with the decline of the Middle Kingdom and the emergence of a weak ruling dynasty in Egypt. This dynasty was incapable of resisting foreign invasions and most of Egypt was swiftly conquered by the Hyksos. The Hyksos remained in Egypt and ruled for a century, until they were overthrown by an Egyptian uprising which in turn ushered in the New Kingdom.

The Hyksos were foreign invaders who conquered most of Lower (northern) Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom period of Egyptian history. Although the Hyksos did reign over most of Egypt, as the Fifteenth Dynasty, they were never able to unite the whole Egyptian state. They forced the government in Upper (southern) Egypt to pay severe taxes, but were unable to conquer their rivals.

The Hyksos were foreign invaders who conquered most of Egypt in the 17th century BCE. They ruled most of Egypt for the next century, before being driven out by an Egyptian uprising. The Hyksos had one notable, lasting impact on the development of ancient Egypt. They introduced advanced weaponry, most notably horse-drawn chariots, which revolutionized the Egyptian military and led directly to the massive territorial conquests achieved by Egypt during the New Kingdom.

Wheeled-transportation was extremely uncommon in ancient Egypt until the arrival of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. Egyptian terrain was ill-suited to wheeled-transport and it only really caught on after the Hyksos introduced the ancient Egyptians to horse-drawn chariots.

The Hyksos, whose supposed invasion ended the Middle Kingdom by ushering in the Second Intermediate Period, and whose kings comprised the Fifteenth Dynasty, introduced a wide variety of innovations and concepts into Egyptian society. These included everyday improvements such as musical instruments like the tambourine and lute, and weaving implements like the vertical loom; furthermore, Egyptian bronze-making was greatly expanded during this period. However, the introduction of horses into Egypt, as well as chariot warfare, was the aspect of Hyksos culture that had the most lasting and significant effect on Egypt, as the New Kingdom Pharaohs adopted it as their weapon of choice after finally expelling the Hyksos themselves. The Demotic script was not developed until the First Millennium BCE; however, its hieratic predecessor coexisted with hieroglyphics during the earlier periods.

During the New Kingdom, many upper class women participated in religious ceremonies by playing musical instruments, such as a harp or sistrum. These instruments were intended to accompany specific rituals and were an important component of communal Egyptian worship.

Young students in ancient Egypt learned to read and write through rote memorization. Would-be scribes and government officials were instructed to copy out classic ancient texts in order to teach them how to write.

The vast majority of ancient Egyptians received no formal education whatsoever. The only people who were generally guaranteed an education were the sons of scribes and government officials. Girls were never formally educated in Egyptian society. Of course, some Egyptians might have privately educated their daughters, but this would have been extremely uncommon.

We know a considerable amount about the education of would-be scribes and government officials in the New Kingdom period. Egyptologists have determined that students were taught how to write in the hieratic script before later being taught to write and understand the much more cumbersome hieroglyphics. This is because the hieratic script was simpler, more commonly used, and more useful for government work.

The palace complex of Malkata is one of the few royal houses that survives in the archaeological record. Most archaeologists believe that it was a community that developed in Thebes to support the reign of Amenhotep III. The palace complex of Malkata provides important evidence about how Egyptian rulers lived and how their lives were intertwined with those of their subjects.

The Great Harris Papyrus dates from the reign of Ramesses III, during the twentieth dynasty. It is primarily notable for being the longest surviving papyrus. It provides a summary of the reign of Ramesses III and a list of his temple endowments.

The War Crown, also called the Khepresh, was most typically worn by the powerful rulers of the eighteenth dynasty. The eighteenth dynasty was the height of ancient Egyptian power during the New Kingdom and the Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty were accomplished military commanders who engaged in constant wars of aggression against their neighbors. The War Crown was meant to demonstrate their martial prowess and territorial reach.