How to find research summary in biology
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Sleep plays a vital role in defining the daily activities of virtually all animals. During periods of sleep, the parasympathetic nervous system becomes active and induces a relaxed state in response to increased levels of the hormone melatonin. Despite its ubiquity in the animal kingdom, the purpose of sleep and its role in our daily lives has been disputed by scientists. Two scientists discuss their theories about the purpose of sleep.
Scientist 1
During periods of sleep, animals are able to conserve energy that they would otherwise be spending on unnecessary activity. If an animal’s primary food source is most abundant during daylight, it is a waste of precious energy to be moving about at night. For example, many herbivores, such as squirrels, are diurnal (asleep during the night) because their food source is available during the day, while many insectivores, such as bats, are nocturnal (asleep during the day) because their food source is available during the night. Food sources, as an animal’s most valuable resource, dictate their sleep cycles. Many animal traits observable today evolved as a result of the supply and demand of food in their natural habitat.
Scientist 2
During waking hours, it is true that the body utilizes large amounts of energy; however, the role of sleep is to restore biological products that were utilized during periods of wakefulness, rather than simply to avoid utilizing energy in the first place. Many types of biological molecules, such as hormones, are released throughout the body while an animal is active. Sleep serves as a period of inactivity during which the body can manufacture and store a supply of these molecules, for future use during the next period of activity; furthermore, sleep allows the body to repair cellular damage that has accumulated during waking hours. Experimental evidence shows that when animals are deprived of sleep, their immune system quickly weakens and death rates increase. Sleep is necessary for animals to prevent accumulation of damage and to regenerate crucial biomolecules for daily life.
Adenosine is a damaging by-product of the brain that is produced during waking hours. If Scientist 2’s theory is correct, which of the following is likely true?
In nocturnal animals, adenosine levels are high in the morning.
Adenosine levels remain constant while an animal is sleeping.
If an animal has enough food, adenosine levels will decrease.
An animal that is more active will produce more adenosine.
Accumulated adenosine can help an animal avoid illness.
Explanation
According to Scientist 2, "sleep is necessary for animals to prevent accumulation of damage." Thus, if adenosine accumulates during waking hours, periods of sleep may be used to lower these levels. Adenosine will be high right before sleep and low right after. For a nocturnal animal, this means that adenosine will be high in the morning.
Note that Scientist 2 does not discuss energy or food consumption levels, so we can eliminate answers dealing with these concepts. Finally, we know that adenosine is damaging, and thus would not help an animal avoid illness.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
According to the experiment, what data results would support the hypothesis?
Plate B shows increased F4597 and BC392 gene activity.
Plate A shows increased F4597 and BC392 gene activity.
Both Plate A and Plate B show equal F4597 and BC392 gene activity.
Neither Plate A nor Plate B show F4597 and BC392 gene activity.
Plate A shows decreased F4597 and BC392 gene activity.
Explanation
To support the hypothesis, the data would need to show that calcium increased the gene activity. Plate B has the supplemented calcium growth medium; therefore, increased gene activity in those plates would support the hypothesis.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
If the experiment showed that calcium increased F4597 gene activity but decreased BC392 activity, what could one conclude?
The hypothesis has been disproved.
The hypothesis has been proved.
One cannot make a conclusion about the veracity of the hypothesis.
Calcium decreases the activity of protein Gfy.
Calcium increases the activity of protein Cs3.
Explanation
The hypothesis stated the calcium manipulation would increase F4597 and BC392 activity; therefore, a result that showed decreased activity in the BC392 gene would contradict the hypothesis. Further, the hypothesis mentions that the calcium would "interact" with the proteins, but does not specific what type of interaction whether it be an increase or decrease of protein activity.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
If the experiment showed that calcium increased F4597 gene activity but decreased BC392 activity, what could one conclude?
The hypothesis has been disproved.
The hypothesis has been proved.
One cannot make a conclusion about the veracity of the hypothesis.
Calcium decreases the activity of protein Gfy.
Calcium increases the activity of protein Cs3.
Explanation
The hypothesis stated the calcium manipulation would increase F4597 and BC392 activity; therefore, a result that showed decreased activity in the BC392 gene would contradict the hypothesis. Further, the hypothesis mentions that the calcium would "interact" with the proteins, but does not specific what type of interaction whether it be an increase or decrease of protein activity.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
What new information would weaken this experiment?
Research showing that Ca++ alone does not affect proteins, but requires a coupling with Ka+ in order to be effective.
Another experiment with results showing Ca++ levels affected a different protein Hrt and increased activity of the Cp340 gene.
Research showing Na levels did not change the activity of protein Sl298.
Another experiment shows potassium increases F4597 gene activity.
Calcium is shown to have significant impacts on all proteins.
Explanation
Researching showing isolated Ca++ does not affect proteins undermines the root of this experimental design and hypothesis because it looks at the sole effects of Ca++ on proteins.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
What new information would weaken this experiment?
Research showing that Ca++ alone does not affect proteins, but requires a coupling with Ka+ in order to be effective.
Another experiment with results showing Ca++ levels affected a different protein Hrt and increased activity of the Cp340 gene.
Research showing Na levels did not change the activity of protein Sl298.
Another experiment shows potassium increases F4597 gene activity.
Calcium is shown to have significant impacts on all proteins.
Explanation
Researching showing isolated Ca++ does not affect proteins undermines the root of this experimental design and hypothesis because it looks at the sole effects of Ca++ on proteins.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
Would new information about the lack of absorption of calcium through a growth medium strengthen or weaken this experiment and why?
This information would weaken the experiment because it would decrease the influence of the independent variable (amount of calcium).
This information would strengthen the experiment because it would increase the range of results.
This information would strengthen the experiment because it would add another variable to study.
The information would weaken the experiment.
This information would have no affect on the experiment.
Explanation
Information showing that calclum is not properly absorbed into growth mediums would weaken the experiment because it would skew the results for Plate B and create a smaller contrast between Plate A and Plate B.
A scientific experiment is conducted to test if calcium can affect gene regulation. Scientists hypothesize that high levels of calcium would interact with the proteins Cs3 and Gfy, which in turn would increase the transcription of genes F4597 and BC392. The experiment procedure is summarized below.
- Isolate the genes F4597 and BC392.
- Create a vector within yeast cells containing the two genes
- Culture yeast cells
- Grow yeast cells in different growth mediums—one medium lacking calcium (plate A), and one medium with supplemented calcium (plate B)
Would new information about the lack of absorption of calcium through a growth medium strengthen or weaken this experiment and why?
This information would weaken the experiment because it would decrease the influence of the independent variable (amount of calcium).
This information would strengthen the experiment because it would increase the range of results.
This information would strengthen the experiment because it would add another variable to study.
The information would weaken the experiment.
This information would have no affect on the experiment.
Explanation
Information showing that calclum is not properly absorbed into growth mediums would weaken the experiment because it would skew the results for Plate B and create a smaller contrast between Plate A and Plate B.
Five experiments are done to test the relative infectiousness of different serotypes of the Influenza A virus when exposed to tissue from different organisms and competition from one another.
When the virus is more infectious, it will result in more detectable antigens.
Antigens are detected via Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which elicits a detectable hue of purple whenever antigens are detected. The hue darkens in response to increased detection of antigens according to this qualitative scale:
Very Dark Purple, Dark Purple, Purple, Light Purple, and Very Light Purple
Experiment 1
Three separate serotypes of Influenza A are used: H1N1, H2N2, and H5N1. Viral samples were separately centrifuged onto single layers on human cells and viral activity was identified using ELISA. The results are as follows:
H1N1: Very dark purple H2N2: Dark purple H5N1: purple
Experiment 2
Three separate serotypes of Influenza A are used: H1N1, H2N2, and H5N1. Viral samples were separately centrifuged onto single layers on chicken cells and viral activity was identified using ELISA. The results are as follows:
H1N1: Very dark purple H2N2: Dark purple H5N1: Very dark purple
Experiment 3
Three separate serotypes of Influenza A are used: H1N1, H2N2, and H5N1. Viral samples were separately centrifuged onto single layers on swine cells and viral activity was identified using ELISA. The results are as follows:
H1N1: Very dark purple H2N2: Very dark purple H5N1: Purple
Experiment 4
Three separate serotypes of Influenza A are used: H1N1, H2N2, and H5N1. Viral samples were centrifuged together onto single layers of duck cells while viral activity was identified using ELISA. The results are as follows:
H1N1: Very dark purple H2N2: Very dark purple H5N1: Very dark Purple
Experiment 5
Three separate serotypes of Influenza A are used: H1N1, H2N2, and H5N1. Viral samples were centrifuged together onto equal layers of human, chicken, swine, and duck cells while viral activity was identified using ELISA. The results are as follows:
H1N1: Very dark purple H2N2: Purple H5N1: Light Purple
In experiment 5, what is the most likely purpose of sampling all of the serotypes together on the 4 cell types?
To test for possible effects of competition between serotypes.
To get the lightest purple possible.
To determine the bounds on the antigen detection resolution.
To illicit cross-contamination of cells.
Explanation
Since, in consideration of all the other experiments as controls, experiment 5 does give some insight into the possible effects of competition between the three serotypes, it is likely that this was a motive for the experiment.
Mitochondria make 90% of the energy needed by the body to sustain life. The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging (MFRTA) theorizes that individuals who live longest produce fewer mitochondrial oxygen reactive species than individuals that have a shorter life span. Therefore, lifespan will increase if fewer mtROS are produced, and lifespan will decrease if more mtROS are produced. An experiment was done to test this theory, and the results are shown in the chart below. Four test groups of flies were involved, two groups consisted of females, and two groups consisted of males.
| | Test group 1 | Test group 2 | Test group 3 | Test group 4 | | | ------------------- | ---------------- | ---------------- | ---------------- | ------- | | # of mtROS | 3.9 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 2.7 | | Lifespan | 110 days | 120 days | 95 days | 89 days |
Based on this experiment, a test group living in a low oxygen environment would:
None of the answers listed
have a shorter lifespan
have a longer lifespan.
produce a lower mtROS amount
produce a higher mtROS amount
Explanation
We do not know the relationship between a low-oxygen environment and the mtROS amount. One might hypothesize that a low-oxygen environment would lower the influence of the mitochondrial oxygen reactive species because there is less oxygen to react with. However, this experiment does not begin to address this issue, therefore no conclusion can be made.