William of Ockham (1825-1347) is best known in the popular mind for the so-called "Ockham's razor," a common sense idea that we shouldn't just suppose that there are many kinds of beings in the world necessary for explaining our theories. He is, however, also known (for related reasons) as a "nominalist," that is, as someone who thinks that universal notions like "dog" and "tree" do not subsist in reality but only arise in the mind, which compares individual things that are maximally similar—hence, calling those individual things by a given universal name.

He also wrote the highly influential Summa logicae, which outlined a form of logic that was congenial to this outlook (as well as other aspects of his theory of mind and metaphysics). If you ever doubt that there was sophisticated philosophy in the middle ages, crack open Ockham's works, and you will see that he (along with many others) were quite agile minds indeed!

A Streetcar Named Desire won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize in Drama for its playwright, Tennessee Williams. Largely considered one of the premier dramas of the twentieth century, the play's depiction of mental health problems, sexual desire, and violence was considered groundbreaking in its own time. The play would be made into an award-winning movie in 1951 and firmly established Tennessee Williams as one of the largest figures of the theater world.

Arthur Miller won the Pulitzer Prize in Drama in 1949, David Mamet won the Pulitzer Prize in Drama in 1984, Eugene O'Neil won the Pulitzer Prize in Drama in 1922, 1928, and 1957, and Sarah Ruhl won the Pulitzer Prize in Drama in 2010.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) was a Russian author of short fiction and novels. His works include everything on the list except The Cherry Orchard (1904) which was the last play written by Anton Chekov.

In the Bible, the books of Exodus through Deuteronomy tell of the departure of the Hebrew people from Egypt. The classic moment in this sojourn is their time at Mount Sinai. This is where the so-called Ten Commandments were said to be presented by God to Moses. Whatever might be the historical accuracy of this overall tale, this is an important fact to know, as the experience of the Hebrew people in the desert was pivotal for their self-identity. This would remain a continuing motif throughout their scriptures as well as in the Christian scriptures as well, which would present Jesus as a kind of second Moses.

The philosophy of Plato is known for many things. One of his most famous doctrines is the so-called theory of "Forms" or "Ideas." This refers to the notion that everything in the world "participates" in some kind of universal and separate Idea. Thus, we can only call this or that tree a "tree" because those various individual trees participate in the universal notion of "treeness."

This position is often called "extreme realism" because it supposes that our ideas are so real that they actually exist. It is like there is a kind of "heaven" (loosely speaking) in which the Ideas exist. A radically contrary position is sometimes named "nominalism", which indicates that there are no universal Ideas that are really "out in reality." Instead, a strictly "nominalist" position would state that universal ideas like "tree" and "dog" only exist because we give name to individual things.

The notion of the "liberal arts" is notoriously slippery. In different ages, different things are said to be part of the liberal arts. As the curriculum of the medieval university solidified, however, the seven liberal arts took up a basic form that became normalized by the twelfth / thirteenth century. These were divided into the "trivium" and the "quadrivium"—or, the "three subjects" and the "four subjects." The trivium was devoted to topics needed for all other learning, so it focused on grammar, rhetoric, and logic. These introduced the quite young students to the tools needed for later studies. The quadrivium was made up of primarily mathematical courses, namely arithmetic, geometry, astronomy (like physics today), and music (a study of harmonies and proportions).

The 1895 novel, The Red Badge of Courage, was Stephen Crane's second novel, but his first success, making him a literary celebrity at the age of 24. Crane was inspired to write a tale of the Civil War thirty years after the end of the conflict, after reading tales of battles from veterans. Crane thought the journalistic reports did not convey what it was like psychologically to be in war, and so he crafted his story about a soldier by interviewing a host of Civil War veterans about their experiences.

Aristotle was a Greek scientist and philosopher. Sophocles is most famous for his three Theban plays. Aeschylus wrote The Oresteia trilogy. Aristophanes wrote comedies and Euripedes wrote dramas in Athens.

Hamlet was a turning point in the writing career of William Shakespeare. Taking an old tale about a Prince of Denmark whose father has mysteriously died and whose uncle has usurped the throne, Shakespeare focused intensely on Hamlet's character and inner drama. The play features many ruminations on philosophy and psychology, which were used in most of Shakespeare's later tragedies.

Jane Austen's Emma, published in 1815, deals with a genteel young woman dealing with romantic intrigues in Regency-era England. What sets Emma apart is its focus on its main character's foibles in attempting to play matchmaker with everyone she knows. Using her typical wit and satire, Austen portrays Emma's headstrong attitude getting in the way of her own life.