Kohlberg's three levels of moral thinking include preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

From birth to about nine years of age, a child is believed to experience what Kohlberg called the preconventional phase. At this time the focus is self-interest; the child will follow rules just to avoid punishment and achieve a concrete reward.

The other two options, “preoperational” and “concrete operational” are incorrect because they are stages from Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Erik Erikson was a theorist who believed that each stage of life had its own task to overcome. Erickson’s psychosocial stages included the following: infancy, toddlerhood, preschool, elementary school, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. He assigned each stage with an approximate age range. In the preschool stage (from about 3 to 6 years of age), Erikson believed people needed to resolve issues associated with initiative versus guilt. He hypothesized that children at this stage will learn to either take the initiative to start and carry out tasks or that they will feel guilty about their attempts to be independent. The other provided options are stages in Erikson's stages of psychosocial development; however, they each have their own tasks (i.e. trust versus mistrust or autonomy versus shame and doubt) and are incorrect.

Object permanence is the understanding that even though an object has disappeared from view, that disappearance is probably temporary: the object has not disappeared totally from existence. Infants do not achieve this understanding until around eight months of age. Because of this, the baby girl likely believes her father no longer exists when he disappears from view, which is upsetting.

Pyrophobia and arachnophobia are each fears of a specific stimulus. Pyrophobia (from the Greek "piras") is the fear of fire, while arachnophobia (from the Greek "arachni") is the fear of spiders. Because they are fears of a specific stimulus, they are specific phobias as opposed to social phobias.

Noam Chomsky proposed that we all are born with a "language acquisition device" in our minds, which gives us universal principles of human language. We learn our language's own "settings" for human communication according to these universal principles. For instance, if all human language has temporal tenses, we learn how our particular language expresses tense. Although the behaviorists believe we only learn language through our environment, Chomsky pointed out that we learn language very quickly through processes that appear similar to the human species, regardless of environment.

Panic disorders are quite common. During a panic attack, an individual will have a higher heart rate along with physiological symptoms that may make them feel physically ill. Fear of future anxiety attacks also may trigger worse symptoms.

Throughout human history, people have utilized naturally occurring substances to reach altered states of consciousness. These substances range widely among the categorizations that modern Western science has created, including stimulants (e.g. coffee), depressants (e.g. wine), and hallucinogens (e.g. certain mushrooms). Generally, drug addiction and abuse has only become a problem with the advent and manipulation of synthetic drugs, along with social changes and stresses.

The minimum amount of energy for a stimulus to be registered as a sensation is known as the absolute threshold. Any stimulus that occurs too weakly to surpass this threshold will not result in a sensation, and will thus be undetected.

The just noticeable difference refers to the minimum amount of change in a stimulus necessary for a difference in its intensity to be recognized.

Transduction is the conversion of energy from one form into another, for example, from light energy into electrical energy during vision.

The minimum threshold may sound like the correct answer, but it is in fact not the correct term. The absolute threshold is the appropriate label for the phenomenon.

Noam Chomsky proposed that we all are born with a "language acquisition device" in our minds, which gives us universal principles of human language. We learn our language's own "settings" for human communication according to these universal principles. For instance, if all human language has temporal tenses, we learn how our particular language expresses tense. Although the behaviorists believe we only learn language through our environment, Chomsky pointed out that we learn language very quickly through processes that appear similar to the human species, regardless of environment.

Kohlberg's three levels of moral thinking include preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

From birth to about nine years of age, a child is believed to experience what Kohlberg called the preconventional phase. At this time the focus is self-interest; the child will follow rules just to avoid punishment and achieve a concrete reward.

The other two options, “preoperational” and “concrete operational” are incorrect because they are stages from Piaget's theory of cognitive development.