Both Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx were German-born anti-capitalists active in London's expatriate radical community. In 1848, they wrote and published The Communist Manifesto as part of a communist organization, originally in German. Their critique of capitalism from a Hegelian viewpoint crystallized reaction to capitalism, and launched the most influential political movement of the twentieth century.

William of Ockham (1825-1347) is best known in the popular mind for the so-called "Ockham's razor," a common sense idea that we shouldn't just suppose that there are many kinds of beings in the world necessary for explaining our theories. He is, however, also known (for related reasons) as a "nominalist," that is, as someone who thinks that universal notions like "dog" and "tree" do not subsist in reality but only arise in the mind, which compares individual things that are maximally similar—hence, calling those individual things by a given universal name.

He also wrote the highly influential Summa logicae, which outlined a form of logic that was congenial to this outlook (as well as other aspects of his theory of mind and metaphysics). If you ever doubt that there was sophisticated philosophy in the middle ages, crack open Ockham's works, and you will see that he (along with many others) were quite agile minds indeed!

Both Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx were German-born anti-capitalists active in London's expatriate radical community. In 1848, they wrote and published The Communist Manifesto as part of a communist organization, originally in German. Their critique of capitalism from a Hegelian viewpoint crystallized reaction to capitalism, and launched the most influential political movement of the twentieth century.

The followers of Aristotle were called the "peripatetics", and often his general "school" of philosophy is called "peripatetic" or "peripateticism." This name comes from the one of two sources. On the one hand, his school in Athens had colonnades in which the instruction perhaps occurred. The Greek for "colonnade" is peripatoi. On the other hand, however, it is also said that Aristotle walked while lecturing. The word for "a walker" in Greek is peripatetikos. Hence, he would walk back and forth with his students, lecturing. From this one little habit (or, perhaps, the aforementioned colonnades), there arose a title that was affixed to philosophers for over two millennia!

The followers of Aristotle were called the "peripatetics", and often his general "school" of philosophy is called "peripatetic" or "peripateticism." This name comes from the one of two sources. On the one hand, his school in Athens had colonnades in which the instruction perhaps occurred. The Greek for "colonnade" is peripatoi. On the other hand, however, it is also said that Aristotle walked while lecturing. The word for "a walker" in Greek is peripatetikos. Hence, he would walk back and forth with his students, lecturing. From this one little habit (or, perhaps, the aforementioned colonnades), there arose a title that was affixed to philosophers for over two millennia!

William of Ockham (1825-1347) is best known in the popular mind for the so-called "Ockham's razor," a common sense idea that we shouldn't just suppose that there are many kinds of beings in the world necessary for explaining our theories. He is, however, also known (for related reasons) as a "nominalist," that is, as someone who thinks that universal notions like "dog" and "tree" do not subsist in reality but only arise in the mind, which compares individual things that are maximally similar—hence, calling those individual things by a given universal name.

He also wrote the highly influential Summa logicae, which outlined a form of logic that was congenial to this outlook (as well as other aspects of his theory of mind and metaphysics). If you ever doubt that there was sophisticated philosophy in the middle ages, crack open Ockham's works, and you will see that he (along with many others) were quite agile minds indeed!

Plato wrote many dialogues on a great number of philosophical topics. His philosophical genius was matched only by his great stylistic ability to craft dialogues among various interlocutors. The Republic is his great work on political philosophy, one that is read by many people and would be a foundation text (whether accepted or rejected) for much of European political thought through the ages. This lengthy text deals with problems of justice, the way that various classes in a city should interact, how the city reflects the inner life of the human soul, and many other topics. Like much of Plato, the work is very airy and lacks the pragmatism that one finds in his student Aristotle's work The Politics. Nevertheless, the Republic remains an important work of political thought, working through numerous topics pertinent to the civic order—always with the deft expression that one expects from the able pen of Plato.

While all the Roman Emperors read philosophy and a few others wrote literary works, only Marcus Aurelius, emperor from 161-180 CE, actually wrote a philosophical tract, known as The Meditations. Marcus Aurelius' Meditations were a development on Stoic philosophy, and the work is really a collection of thoughts and quotations compiled while Marcus Aurelius was Emperor and leading the Roman Army on campaigns.

The Consolation of Philosophy was written by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius during his period of imprisonment at the hand of his former "employer", Theodoric the Great. In the text, Boethius is visited by Lady Philosophy, with whom he discusses a variety of Philosophical topics. The work is interspersed with related poetry as well. Throughout their discussions, Boethius is consoled that true felicity is not found in the passing and capricious happenings of this world (and the opinions of those in it).

Plato wrote many dialogues on a great number of philosophical topics. His philosophical genius was matched only by his great stylistic ability to craft dialogues among various interlocutors. The Republic is his great work on political philosophy, one that is read by many people and would be a foundation text (whether accepted or rejected) for much of European political thought through the ages. This lengthy text deals with problems of justice, the way that various classes in a city should interact, how the city reflects the inner life of the human soul, and many other topics. Like much of Plato, the work is very airy and lacks the pragmatism that one finds in his student Aristotle's work The Politics. Nevertheless, the Republic remains an important work of political thought, working through numerous topics pertinent to the civic order—always with the deft expression that one expects from the able pen of Plato.