Artaxerxes III was a ruler of the Persian Empire during the fourth century BCE. When he came to power, Egypt had recently rebelled against the Persian Empire and was trying to re-establish itself as a strong, independent kingdom. Artaxerxes III led a successful Persian reconquest of Egypt and established himself as the first Pharaoh of the 31st Dynasty.

The second Pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, Sneferu's son Khufu, built the Great Pyramid of Giza as his tomb. The Fourth Dynasty featured the prolific building of pyramids and other grand monuments, as Sneferu was responsible for the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid, both at Dahshur. The Giza Sphinx is traditionally believed to have been built by Khafra, though some alternatively hold that it was constructed by his brother Djedefra (while there are also separate pyramids for both pharaohs), and Shepseskaf's tomb is the Mastabat al-Fir'aun at Saqqara.

Thutmose III is one of the most famous rulers of Egypt during the New Kingdom. He ruled with his mother, Hatshepsut, for two decades before ruling by himself for another thirty years. He was one of the most successful military commanders in Egyptian history and established an extensive empire, stretching from Nubia in the south, all the way to Syria and Canaan in the east. He was not, however, buried at the Great Pyramids of Giza. Instead, like the other Pharaohs of the New Kingdom, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings.

Amenemhat I became ruler of Egypt, along with his wife Neferitatjenen, in 1991 BCE and ruled until he was assassinated in 1962 BCE.

The Coffin Texts first appeared during the First Intermediate Period and became popular during the Middle Kingdom. Like the name suggests, the Coffin Texts were a series of funerary spells that were inscribed on the walls of coffins. They were inspired by the earlier Pyramid Texts, but unlike the Pyramid Texts — which were reserved for the Pharaoh and other rulers — the Coffin Texts extended access to funerary spells, and an understanding of the afterlife, to the common people.

Pyramids built during the Middle Kingdom are distinct from pyramids built during the Old Kingdom in that they included traps and secret passageways, designed to prevent tomb raiding. This demonstrates that the ancient Egyptian rulers had learned from the past and highlights how grave robbing must have been relatively common in Egyptian society, in spite of the many social customs designed to discourage it.

The Pyramid Texts emerged first, during the Old Kingdom, as a way for Pharaohs to protect themselves and ensure safe passage to the afterlife after their death. The Coffin Texts emerged later, first appearing during the First Intermediate Period and flourishing during the Middle Kingdom. The Coffin Texts were based on the Pyramid Texts, but unlike the Pyramid Texts, the Coffin Texts were available to the whole Egyptian population (so long as one could afford to be buried in a coffin). Both texts were primarily comprised of funerary spells that were inscribed on the walls of the tomb or coffin.

A wadi is a dry river-bed. They can be found in countless locations, alongside major rivers, in the Middle East. They were particularly important in ancient times because they often contained lucrative mineral deposits.

Modern historians and scientists have been able to date the Rosetta Stone to 196 BCE, in the midst of the Third Intermediate Period. As near as can be figured, the Stone acted as a sort of public information board; in three different scripts (Hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Greek) the Stone informs Egyptian citizens of the ascension of the Pharaoh Ptolemy V. Prior to its discovery in 1799, no living individual was able to read hieroglyphic script, despite numerous decoding attempts over the ages. Because the Stone reproduced essentially the same text three times over, the Frenchman Jean-Francois Champollion was able to use his knowledge of Greek to translate both the Demotic and Hieroglyphics on the artifact. Champollion’s translation opened up an entire world of understanding, as historians and archeologists were able to read hieroglyphic inscriptions on temple walls, monuments, and scrolls for the very first time.

Ancient Egyptian art tended to conform to the notions of ancient Egyptian worldview. As such, order and harmony were constant themes. The inundation of the Nile, a precarious and uncertain time in Egyptian life, was never depicted. Instead, the Nile was always depicted as if it were orderly and constant.