Psychology Quiz: Sampling And Cultural Bias

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Sampling And Cultural BiasQuestion 1 of 20

A psychologist studies the effect of sleep deprivation on complex problem-solving skills using a sample of 100 undergraduate students from their university's introductory psychology course. Participants receive course credit for their involvement. The findings indicate a significant negative correlation between hours of sleep deprivation and problem-solving accuracy.

The most significant limitation in generalizing these findings to the broader adult population is that:

the correlational design does not allow for causal inference between sleep and problem-solving ability.

the sample is not representative, as college students may differ systematically from other adults in cognitive abilities, sleep patterns, and motivation.

course credit may have acted as a coercive incentive, violating the ethical principle of fully voluntary participation.

the sample size of 100 is likely too small to yield statistically reliable results for a large and diverse population.

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Psychology Quiz

Psychology Quiz: Sampling And Cultural Bias

Practice Sampling And Cultural Bias in Psychology with focused quiz questions that help you check what you know, review explanations, and build confidence with test-style prompts.

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This quiz focuses on Sampling And Cultural Bias, giving you a quick way to practice the rules, question types, and explanations that matter most for Psychology.

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Question 1

The most significant limitation in generalizing these findings to the broader adult population is that:

the correlational design does not allow for causal inference between sleep and problem-solving ability.
the sample is not representative, as college students may differ systematically from other adults in cognitive abilities, sleep patterns, and motivation. (correct answer)
course credit may have acted as a coercive incentive, violating the ethical principle of fully voluntary participation.
the sample size of 100 is likely too small to yield statistically reliable results for a large and diverse population.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The primary threat to generalizability (external validity) is the use of a convenience sample of college students. This group is not representative of the broader adult population, as they may differ on many relevant variables (e.g., age, health, baseline cognitive skills, daily schedules), which limits our ability to apply the findings to other groups. Distractor A correctly identifies a limitation of correlational research, but this affects internal validity (the ability to make causal claims), not external validity (generalizability). Distractor C points to a potential ethical issue, which is separate from the methodological limitation of generalizability. Distractor D is incorrect because the stem states the findings were significant, implying the sample size was sufficient to detect an effect within the sample; the issue is not statistical power but the sample's representativeness.

Question 2

An influential theory of cognitive dissonance, which posits that people feel discomfort when their beliefs and actions are inconsistent, was developed and tested primarily on North American college students. When researchers attempted to replicate a classic cognitive dissonance experiment in several East Asian cultures, they found a significantly weaker or non-existent effect.

The most plausible explanation for this failure to replicate, which highlights a limit on the original theory's generalizability, is that:

the original studies were conducted decades ago and social attitudes have since changed, reducing temporal validity.
the East Asian participants were more aware of psychological research and thus more susceptible to demand characteristics.
the translation of the experimental materials into East Asian languages was likely flawed, leading to confusion among participants.
the concept of cognitive consistency and the motivation to maintain it may be a culturally bound value, less central in collectivist cultures. (correct answer)

Explanation: When you encounter questions about research replication failures across cultures, you're dealing with the fundamental issue of external validity—whether findings from one population generalize to others. Cognitive dissonance theory assumes that inconsistency between beliefs and actions creates uncomfortable tension that people are motivated to resolve. However, this assumption reflects Western individualistic values that prioritize personal consistency and authenticity. Answer D correctly identifies that the motivation to maintain cognitive consistency may be culturally bound and less central in collectivist East Asian cultures, where harmony with the group and situational flexibility are often more valued than personal consistency. Let's examine why the other options fall short. Answer A incorrectly focuses on temporal validity—the idea that findings change over time. While this can affect replication, the passage specifically mentions cultural differences, not historical changes. Answer B suggests East Asian participants were more susceptible to demand characteristics (responding based on perceived experimenter expectations), but there's no evidence they were more research-savvy than the original participants. Answer C blames translation issues, which is always a concern in cross-cultural research, but this explanation ignores the deeper theoretical problem: the underlying psychological mechanism itself may not apply universally. The key insight here is that many psychological theories developed on Western samples may reflect culture-specific values rather than universal human tendencies. When studying for psychology exams, remember that replication failures often reveal important boundaries of psychological theories, particularly when they involve different cultural contexts that prioritize different values and motivations.

Question 3

A researcher investigates the effectiveness of a new mindfulness app for reducing anxiety. Participants are recruited via social media and are assigned to either use the app for 15 minutes daily or to a wait-list control group. The sample consists primarily of young women who follow popular psychology-related accounts. The researcher concludes the app is effective for reducing anxiety.

Which of the following describes the most significant threat to the generalizability of the study's conclusion?

The absence of a placebo control group means the observed effects could be due to participant expectations rather than the app itself.
The sample of young women from social media may not be representative of all individuals who experience anxiety. (correct answer)
The self-report measures of anxiety may not be as reliable as physiological measures like heart rate variability.
The researcher's awareness of the study's hypothesis could have introduced experimenter bias in data interpretation.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The question specifically asks about the threat to generalizability (external validity). The sampling method (recruiting from social media followers of psychology accounts) creates a biased sample that is not representative of the broader population of people with anxiety. Therefore, the results may not apply to other groups (e.g., men, older adults, people not on social media). Distractors A, C, and D all point to valid methodological concerns, but they threaten the study's internal validity—the confidence that the app caused the reduction in anxiety within this specific sample—rather than its generalizability to other populations.

Question 4

A contemporary psychology student is analyzing Solomon Asch's famous 1950s conformity experiments, in which male college students were asked to judge line lengths after hearing confederates give incorrect answers. The student notes that replication studies in recent years have sometimes found lower rates of conformity than Asch originally reported.

The discrepancy in findings might limit the generalizability of Asch's original results by suggesting a lack of temporal validity. This means that:

the original study's use of an all-male sample prevents the findings from being applied to women.
the cultural and historical context of the 1950s, which emphasized social cohesion, may have influenced conformity levels in ways that are less potent today. (correct answer)
the artificiality of the line-judging task in a lab setting does not reflect how conformity operates in real-world situations.
Asch's methodology lacked a proper control group, making it impossible to determine the true baseline for conformity.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. Temporal validity is a type of external validity that refers to the extent to which findings can be generalized across time. The socio-cultural climate of the 1950s United States was arguably more conformist than today's. This historical context is a variable that may have influenced the original results, and its change over time could explain the lower conformity rates in modern replications. Distractor A refers to a limitation in generalizability to another population (women), not across time. Distractor C refers to a lack of ecological validity, which is related but distinct from temporal validity. Distractor D is incorrect; Asch's study did have a control condition where participants judged lines alone, establishing a baseline.

Question 5

A clinical psychologist conducts a detailed case study of a single patient who has a rare form of anterograde amnesia following a brain injury. Based on extensive testing and observation of this individual, the psychologist publishes an article proposing a new model of memory consolidation that, the author claims, applies to humans in general.

The primary reason to be skeptical of the generalizability of the proposed memory model is that:

the researcher's close involvement with the patient may have introduced subjective bias into the observations.
the findings are based on a single individual whose unique brain injury and personal history may not be representative of others. (correct answer)
the study lacks a control group of individuals without amnesia, making it impossible to draw firm conclusions.
the memory tests used may not have been standardized or validated for use with amnesic patients.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. Case studies provide rich, in-depth information but suffer from very low external validity (generalizability). The findings from a single, unique individual (an N of 1) cannot be reliably generalized to a wider population. The patient's specific brain lesion, pre-injury characteristics, and recovery process may be idiosyncratic. While case studies are excellent for generating hypotheses, they are poor for testing them in a generalizable way. Distractor A refers to a potential lack of objectivity (internal validity). Distractor C misses the point of a case study, which is descriptive and exploratory, not comparative. Distractor D is a concern about measurement validity, but the core issue for generalizability is the sample size of one.

Question 6

The abstract of a research paper includes the following sentence: 'In a study of 150 first-year students at a private liberal arts college, we found that higher levels of academic self-efficacy were strongly predictive of end-of-semester GPA. Therefore, our findings suggest that interventions to boost self-efficacy will improve academic performance for all college students.'

What is the most significant flaw in the authors' concluding sentence?

It makes a causal claim based on correlational data, which is not statistically justified.
It does not specify the statistical test used to determine the strength of the prediction.
It fails to consider other variables, such as prior academic achievement, that could also predict GPA.
It overgeneralizes findings from a small, selective sample to a much broader and more diverse population. (correct answer)

Explanation: When evaluating research conclusions, you need to carefully examine whether the authors' claims are justified by their specific study design and sample characteristics. The fundamental problem here is external validity - the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the original study. The researchers studied only 150 students from a single private liberal arts college, which represents a very narrow, homogeneous sample. Private liberal arts colleges typically enroll students with similar socioeconomic backgrounds, academic preparation levels, and demographic characteristics. Yet the authors conclude that self-efficacy interventions will work for "all college students" - a population that includes community college students, students at large public universities, non-traditional students, and many other diverse groups who may respond very differently to such interventions. Looking at the other options: Choice A incorrectly identifies the flaw as correlation versus causation, but the authors are discussing predictive relationships and interventions, which can legitimately follow from correlational findings. Choice B focuses on statistical reporting details, which isn't the core logical flaw in their reasoning. Choice C mentions confounding variables, but while this could be a limitation, it's not the most significant problem with their sweeping conclusion. The correct answer is D because overgeneralization from selective samples is one of the most serious threats to research validity. A study of 150 students at one type of institution simply cannot support claims about "all college students." Study tip: When evaluating research conclusions, always ask yourself: "Does the sample match the population the researchers are making claims about?" Overgeneralization is a frequent flaw in psychological research interpretation.

Question 7

A study investigates the impact of social media use on the social skills of adolescents. The researchers recruit participants from a single, affluent suburban high school where every student is provided with a laptop and has access to high-speed internet. They find a negative correlation between hours spent on social media and face-to-face conversational skills.

The ability to generalize this finding to all adolescents is most severely limited by the fact that the sample:

may have better baseline social skills due to their privileged background, which could alter the observed relationship.
was not randomly assigned to different levels of social media use, meaning a causal conclusion cannot be drawn.
consists of high school students, whose social skills are still developing, making the findings unstable.
experiences a technological environment that is not representative of adolescents in lower-income or rural areas. (correct answer)

Explanation: When you encounter questions about research generalizability, focus on whether the sample truly represents the broader population the researchers want to make claims about. Generalizability depends on how well your sample matches the target population across relevant characteristics. The correct answer is D because this study's sample comes from an unusually privileged technological environment. Students at this affluent school all receive laptops and have guaranteed high-speed internet access—a situation that doesn't reflect the reality for many adolescents nationwide. Lower-income and rural teens often have limited internet access, older devices, or must share technology with family members. These different technological contexts could fundamentally change how social media affects social skills, making it impossible to generalize findings from this privileged sample to all adolescents. Option A incorrectly focuses on baseline social skills rather than the core generalizability problem—the unrepresentative technological environment. While privileged students might have different baseline skills, this doesn't address the main barrier to generalization. Option B confuses generalizability with causation; even correlational findings can be generalizable if the sample is representative. The random assignment issue affects causal inference, not generalizability. Option C wrongly suggests that studying developing skills makes findings "unstable"—but adolescence is precisely when we'd want to study social skill development. Remember: generalizability questions ask whether findings from your specific sample can apply to the broader target population. Always look for characteristics that make the sample unrepresentative of the group researchers want to make claims about.

Question 8

A political pollster attempts to predict a national election outcome by conducting a telephone survey. The sampling frame is a list of all residential landline phone numbers in the country. The pollster calls a random sample from this list and finds that Candidate A has a significant lead over Candidate B.

The generalizability of this poll's findings is most threatened by the systematic exclusion of individuals who:

were not at home when the pollster called, resulting in non-response bias.
have unlisted landline phone numbers, who may differ politically from those with listed numbers.
exclusively use mobile phones and do not have a landline, a group that is demographically distinct from landline users. (correct answer)
refused to participate in the survey, as their political preferences remain unknown and may differ from respondents.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. This scenario illustrates a severe sampling frame error common in older polling methods. A large and growing segment of the population, particularly younger and more mobile individuals, are 'cell phone only.' This group has been shown to have systematically different demographic profiles and voting patterns than households that still have landlines. By excluding them entirely from the sampling frame, the poll is drawing from a biased, unrepresentative sample of the electorate. Distractors A and D describe non-response bias, which is a problem, but C describes a more fundamental flaw where a massive and systematically different portion of the target population was impossible to sample from the start.

Question 9

A Western cognitive psychologist aims to study intelligence in a remote, indigenous community with limited contact with Western culture. The researcher administers a translated version of a popular intelligence test standardized in the United States. The test heavily emphasizes skills acquired through formal schooling, such as abstract verbal reasoning and timed matrix completion.

The psychologist finds that community members score, on average, significantly lower than the U.S. normative sample. This study's conclusion that the community has lower cognitive ability is most severely limited by the:

potential for inaccurate translation of the test items, which could cause participant misunderstanding.
use of a culturally specific instrument that measures a conception of intelligence not necessarily valued or cultivated in the indigenous culture. (correct answer)
lack of a control group within the community to compare against those who took the test.
presence of experimenter bias, as the researcher might have preconceived notions about the community's abilities.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. This is a classic example of cultural bias in measurement. The intelligence test is based on a Western (etic) model of intelligence that may not be applicable or valid in the indigenous culture. The skills it measures are products of a specific cultural and educational context. Applying it to a different culture limits the validity of the findings and any generalizations made from them. Distractor A (translation error) is a valid concern but is a symptom of the larger problem identified in B—the entire construct and its operationalization are culturally inappropriate. Distractor C is incorrect because a control group would not fix the fundamental problem of using a biased measure. Distractor D describes experimenter bias, which is a potential confound, but the primary flaw lies with the research tool itself.

Question 10

To study urban residents' attitudes toward a new recycling program, a research team creates a sampling frame from the city's property tax records. They then select a simple random sample of 1,000 homeowners to survey. This method excludes all residents who rent their homes, a group that constitutes 60% of the city's population and is, on average, younger and has a lower income than homeowners.

This sampling strategy introduces a significant bias that limits generalizability because:

random selection cannot compensate for an incomplete sampling frame that systematically omits a large portion of the target population. (correct answer)
the sample size of 1,000 is insufficient to represent a city where 60% of residents are renters.
the research team should have used a stratified sampling method instead of a simple random sample.
homeowners are likely to provide more socially desirable answers about recycling than renters.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. The core problem is the sampling frame error. The list from which the sample was drawn (property tax records) does not include the entire target population (all city residents). Because the excluded group (renters) differs systematically from the included group (homeowners) on variables likely related to recycling attitudes (age, income), the sample is inherently biased. Random selection from a biased list produces a biased sample. Distractor B is incorrect because the problem is bias, not sample size. A very large biased sample is still biased. Distractor C is a partial truth; stratified sampling would be better, but it doesn't fully explain why the current method is flawed. The fundamental issue is the incomplete sampling frame described in A. Distractor D speculates about response bias, which is a different issue from the sampling bias that limits generalizability.

Question 11

A research team uses snowball sampling to study the health needs of undocumented immigrants in a large city. They make initial contact with a few individuals through a community health clinic and then ask those participants to refer other people they know from the same community. The final sample consists of 200 participants.

A primary limitation of generalizing the findings from this study to the entire population of undocumented immigrants in the city is that:

the sample is likely to be more socially connected and less isolated than the overall target population. (correct answer)
a sample size of 200 is too small to draw meaningful conclusions about a large, diverse population.
participants may not provide truthful information due to fear of legal repercussions, thus reducing data validity.
the researchers did not obtain a random sample, which is the only way to ensure a representative sample.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. Snowball sampling is a non-probability technique often used for hard-to-reach populations. Its major limitation regarding generalizability is that the sample tends to be homogenous and composed of people within the same social networks. Individuals who are referred are, by definition, socially connected. This systematically excludes more isolated or mistrustful members of the population, meaning the sample is not representative of the full spectrum of experiences within the community. Distractor B focuses on sample size, but the core issue is the sampling method and the bias it introduces. Distractor C addresses response validity, not sample representativeness. Distractor D is a true but incomplete statement; A provides the specific reason why the non-random method is problematic in this context.

Question 12

A developmental psychologist conducts a study on parenting styles in Japan using Diana Baumrind's classification (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive), which was developed based on research with middle-class American families. The researcher finds a high prevalence of behaviors that would be classified as 'authoritarian' and concludes this style is dominant and potentially problematic in Japan.

The generalizability of this conclusion is most limited by the potential for cultural bias in:

the researcher's interpretation of the data, which may be influenced by their own cultural background.
the definition and meaning of the parenting constructs, which may not align with Japanese cultural norms and values. (correct answer)
the sampling method used to recruit Japanese families, which may not have been a random probability sample.
the translation of the survey questions from English to Japanese, which could have contained linguistic errors.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The issue here is the imposition of a culturally-specific framework (an 'etic' approach) onto a different culture. Baumrind's categories and the values they embody (e.g., the emphasis on psychological autonomy in authoritative parenting) are rooted in Western, individualistic culture. In a more collectivist culture like Japan, behaviors that appear 'authoritarian' (e.g., emphasis on obedience and group harmony) may have a different meaning and function, and may not be associated with the same negative outcomes. Therefore, the constructs themselves are culturally biased, limiting the validity of the conclusions. Distractors A, C, and D are all possible issues, but B identifies the most fundamental conceptual flaw that underlies the others: the very framework for understanding parenting is culturally inappropriate.

Question 13

A study on workplace microaggressions surveys a large sample of corporate managers. The sample is diverse in terms of age and socioeconomic background but consists entirely of white women. The study's conclusion states that 'female managers frequently experience microaggressions in the workplace.'

Why is this conclusion a potentially problematic overgeneralization?

The term 'microaggression' is subjective and not reliably measured, making the study's results invalid.
It fails to consider the experiences of male managers, who might also face different forms of workplace challenges.
It overlooks the principle of intersectionality, as the experiences of white women may not be representative of the experiences of women of color. (correct answer)
The sample of managers may not be representative of all female employees in non-managerial roles.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. The conclusion generalizes findings from a sample of white women to all women. This ignores intersectionality—the idea that different aspects of identity (like race and gender) interact to create unique experiences of discrimination. The types and frequency of microaggressions experienced by women of color can be substantially different from those experienced by white women. Therefore, the findings from this homogenous sample cannot be generalized to all women. Distractor A questions the construct's validity, which is a different issue. Distractor B is irrelevant because the claim is about female managers. Distractor D is a valid point about generalizing from managers to all employees, but C points out a more critical flaw: the lack of representativeness even within the category of 'female managers'.

Question 14

Researchers sent out a survey on political attitudes to a random sample of 5,000 registered voters. Only 1,000 surveys were returned. Analysis of public records showed that the respondents were, on average, older, wealthier, and more likely to be registered with a specific political party than the non-respondents.

This situation describes a non-response bias, which limits the generalizability of the survey results because the:

final sample size of 1,000 is too small to represent the views of 5,000 people accurately.
act of responding to the survey may have caused participants to change their political attitudes.
group that chose to respond is systematically different from the group that did not, making the final sample unrepresentative of the target population. (correct answer)
initial sample was randomly selected, which should ensure that the results are generalizable regardless of the response rate.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Non-response bias is a type of sampling bias that occurs when the characteristics of those who respond to a survey are systematically different from those who do not. Even though the initial sample was random, the final sample of respondents is not. Because the respondents differ from non-respondents on key demographic and political variables, the findings from the survey cannot be safely generalized to the entire population of registered voters. Distractor A is incorrect; the problem isn't the final sample size itself, but its biased composition. Distractor B describes reactivity, a different kind of bias. Distractor D is a common misconception; a high response rate is just as important as the initial random selection for ensuring representativeness.

Question 15

A research team from the United States designs a study to identify universal indicators of effective leadership. Their survey includes items that reflect traits commonly associated with leadership in Western contexts, such as assertiveness, direct communication, and individual achievement. They plan to administer this survey in a dozen different countries.

The researchers' own cultural background is most likely to limit the generalizability of their findings by:

causing them to unintentionally violate ethical norms for research conduct in some of the countries they study.
leading to statistical analyses that are inappropriate for comparing data from multiple distinct cultural groups.
preventing them from obtaining a truly random sample of participants in each of the twelve countries.
influencing the operational definition of 'leadership' to reflect individualistic values, potentially overlooking important collectivist leadership traits. (correct answer)

Explanation: When you encounter questions about cross-cultural research, focus on how researchers' cultural backgrounds can create systematic biases in how they conceptualize and measure psychological phenomena. The correct answer is D because the researchers are defining leadership through a Western, individualistic lens. By focusing on traits like assertiveness, direct communication, and individual achievement, they're operationally defining leadership in ways that may miss entirely different but equally valid leadership styles. In collectivist cultures, effective leaders might emphasize harmony, indirect communication, group consensus-building, and shared achievement. Their cultural background is literally shaping what they think leadership is, which will limit the generalizability of their findings. Option A is incorrect because while ethical violations could occur, the question specifically asks about how their cultural background limits generalizability of findings, not research ethics. Option B misses the mark—their cultural bias affects what they're measuring, not the statistical techniques used to analyze the data. The mathematical methods for cross-cultural comparisons can be sound even when the construct being measured is culturally biased. Option C is wrong because cultural background doesn't inherently prevent random sampling; logistical and methodological factors would be the primary barriers to obtaining representative samples. Remember that in cross-cultural psychology questions, look for how the researchers' own cultural lens might create blind spots in their conceptualization of psychological constructs. The bias often occurs at the definitional level—what researchers think they're studying—rather than in sampling or statistical methods.

Question 16

A clinical trial for a new antidepressant medication shows very positive results. However, the study's participants were recruited exclusively from patients at a high-end, private mental health clinic in a wealthy urban area. Most participants had comprehensive health insurance and strong social support systems.

The conclusion that this medication will be equally effective for the general population of individuals with depression is limited because the sample:

may have been more susceptible to placebo effects due to the high-end clinical setting.
lacks individuals with comorbid conditions, who are common in the general population of those with depression.
is not representative of individuals with depression who face greater socioeconomic stressors and barriers to care. (correct answer)
was not randomly selected, which is the only way to establish the medication's true causal effect on depression.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. The sample has a significant socioeconomic bias. Patient outcomes can be heavily influenced by factors like financial stability, stress levels, and access to other resources (therapy, support networks). By sampling only from an affluent population, the study excludes individuals whose depression may be exacerbated by socioeconomic factors and who may have fewer resources to aid their recovery. Therefore, the medication's effectiveness may not generalize to poorer, less-supported populations. Distractor A refers to a threat to internal validity (placebo effect). Distractor B is a plausible limitation, but C describes a broader, more fundamental sampling bias based on the recruitment setting. Distractor D is incorrect; random assignment (not random selection) is used to establish causality, while the issue here is generalizability due to biased selection.

Question 17

A European researcher travels to a small, isolated community in Southeast Asia to study emotional expression. The researcher uses a standardized coding system developed by Paul Ekman, which focuses on six basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) assumed to be universal. The researcher notes that expressions of interpersonal harmony and shame, which are highly salient in the community's social life, are not captured by the coding scheme.

The researcher's use of an exclusively 'etic' (universalist) approach limits the generalizability of the findings about this community's emotional life because it:

fails to account for culturally specific 'emic' emotional expressions that are meaningful within the community. (correct answer)
introduces experimenter bias, as the researcher is likely to misinterpret the emotions they observe.
violates ethical principles by imposing a foreign framework on the community without their informed consent.
cannot be statistically compared to data from the researcher's home culture, making cross-cultural comparison impossible.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. This question addresses the etic vs. emic distinction in cross-cultural research. An etic approach applies supposedly universal principles, while an emic approach focuses on culturally specific meanings. By using only Ekman's universalist framework, the researcher is systemically ignoring emotions that are important within that specific culture (e.g., harmony, shame). This failure to incorporate the emic perspective means the study provides an incomplete and potentially distorted picture of the community's emotional life, and any generalizations about their expressions would be flawed. Distractor B is a consequence of the problem described in A, but A is the more fundamental issue. Distractor C is an ethical concern. Distractor D is incorrect; statistical comparison is possible, but the meaning of such a comparison would be questionable.

Question 18

The ability to generalize this finding to all adolescents is most severely limited by the fact that the sample:

may have better baseline social skills due to their privileged background, which could alter the observed relationship.
was not randomly assigned to different levels of social media use, meaning a causal conclusion cannot be drawn.
consists of high school students, whose social skills are still developing, making the findings unstable.
experiences a technological environment that is not representative of adolescents in lower-income or rural areas. (correct answer)

Question 19

The generalizability of this poll's findings is most threatened by the systematic exclusion of individuals who:

were not at home when the pollster called, resulting in non-response bias.
have unlisted landline phone numbers, who may differ politically from those with listed numbers.
exclusively use mobile phones and do not have a landline, a group that is demographically distinct from landline users. (correct answer)
refused to participate in the survey, as their political preferences remain unknown and may differ from respondents.

Question 20

The most significant limitation in generalizing these findings to the broader adult population is that:

the correlational design does not allow for causal inference between sleep and problem-solving ability.
the sample is not representative, as college students may differ systematically from other adults in cognitive abilities, sleep patterns, and motivation. (correct answer)
course credit may have acted as a coercive incentive, violating the ethical principle of fully voluntary participation.
the sample size of 100 is likely too small to yield statistically reliable results for a large and diverse population.