Psychology Quiz: Developmental Theories

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Developmental TheoriesQuestion 1 of 20

A high school student is accepted to a local college and a more prestigious university far from home. They decide to attend the local college primarily because they are anxious about being separated from their family and long-term romantic partner. A Piagetian theorist would analyze this decision based on the student's cognitive abilities. What would an attachment theorist argue is the most likely primary influence on this decision?

The student's formal operational ability to weigh hypothetical outcomes and consequences logically.

The activation of the student's internal working model, which may characterize attachment figures as unavailable or the self as unable to cope alone.

The student's egocentric belief that their family cannot function without them being physically present.

The student's failure to resolve the psychosocial crisis of identity vs. role confusion, leading to a fear of independence.

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Psychology Quiz

Psychology Quiz: Developmental Theories

Practice Developmental Theories in Psychology with focused quiz questions that help you check what you know, review explanations, and build confidence with test-style prompts.

What this quiz covers

This quiz focuses on Developmental Theories, giving you a quick way to practice the rules, question types, and explanations that matter most for Psychology.

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Try each quiz question before looking at the correct answer. Use the explanations to review missed ideas, then come back to similar questions until the pattern feels familiar.

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Question 1

The student's formal operational ability to weigh hypothetical outcomes and consequences logically.
The activation of the student's internal working model, which may characterize attachment figures as unavailable or the self as unable to cope alone. (correct answer)
The student's egocentric belief that their family cannot function without them being physically present.
The student's failure to resolve the psychosocial crisis of identity vs. role confusion, leading to a fear of independence.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. Attachment theory proposes that the internal working model, formed in infancy, continues to influence relationship expectations and behavior throughout life. A decision driven by intense anxiety about separation from loved ones suggests the activation of this model, possibly one reflecting an insecure (perhaps ambivalent/preoccupied) attachment style where separation is perceived as highly threatening. (A) This is the Piagetian perspective, not the attachment perspective. The student's choice appears to be driven by emotion over logic, contradicting a purely rational analysis. (C) Egocentrism is a concept from earlier Piagetian stages and is less relevant to this adolescent decision. (D) This is an explanation from Erikson's theory, not attachment theory.

Question 2

Unlike Piaget's stage theory, which portrays development as a staircase of broad cognitive reorganizations, attachment theory predicts more continuity in development. Which attachment concept most directly accounts for this predicted stability of social and emotional patterns over time?

The secure base, which provides a consistent foundation for exploration throughout childhood.
The internal working model, which acts as a self-perpetuating template for future relationships. (correct answer)
Stranger anxiety, which establishes a stable, lifelong wariness of unfamiliar individuals.
Social referencing, which ensures that an individual consistently looks to others for guidance.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The internal working model (IWM) is the primary mechanism for continuity in attachment theory. The IWM, formed in early childhood, contains expectations about the self's worthiness of care and others' availability. This model then guides perception, interpretation, and behavior in new relationships, often leading individuals to recreate the relational patterns they experienced early in life. This creates continuity of attachment patterns from infancy to adulthood. (A) The secure base is the function of the attachment figure, not the mechanism of continuity within the individual. (C) and (D) are specific behaviors or phenomena that occur at certain developmental points; they are not broad mechanisms that account for lifelong continuity.

Question 3

Piaget's theory has been criticized for underestimating the cognitive abilities of infants. For instance, studies using violation-of-expectation paradigms show that infants as young as 5 months look longer at physically impossible events (e.g., a solid object passing through another). If this finding is valid, what is its primary implication when comparing Piagetian and attachment theories?

It suggests that the cognitive underpinnings for attachment, such as recognizing a specific caregiver, may be present earlier than Piaget's stages would predict. (correct answer)
It proves that attachment is a purely emotional process, independent of cognitive development.
It validates Piaget's sensorimotor stage but suggests that attachment behaviors like smiling are reflexes, not cognitive events.
It shows that Bowlby's theory is more accurate because it focuses on observable behaviors rather than unobservable mental representations.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. If infants have some form of object permanence or mental representation earlier than Piaget proposed, it means the cognitive machinery necessary to form a specific attachment (i.e., representing the caregiver as a unique, permanent entity) is also in place earlier. This aligns with the observed timeline of specific attachments forming around 6-8 months. The finding challenges Piaget's timeline but provides support for the plausibility of the cognitive requirements underlying attachment theory's timeline. (B) is incorrect; attachment is an integration of cognitive and emotional processes. (C) is incorrect as it misinterprets the finding, which challenges Piaget's timeline, and mischaracterizes attachment behaviors. (D) is incorrect; attachment theory is fundamentally based on the concept of an unobservable mental representation (the internal working model).

Question 4

A mother is playing peek-a-boo with her 8-month-old infant. The infant squeals with delight each time the mother's face reappears. A Piagetian explanation would focus on the infant's developing sense of object permanence. An attachment theorist, focusing on the work of Mary Ainsworth, would interpret the game's appeal differently, emphasizing its role in:

developing the infant's sensorimotor schemas of vision and sound.
teaching the infant about cause-and-effect relationships in social interaction.
demonstrating the caregiver's sensitivity and responsiveness, building a secure attachment. (correct answer)
reducing the infant's innate fear of strangers by making faces familiar.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. From an attachment perspective, particularly Ainsworth's emphasis on caregiver sensitivity, peek-a-boo is a powerful interaction. It is a structured, repetitive, and playful routine where the caregiver attunes to the infant's emotional state, disappears briefly in a non-threatening way, and then returns joyfully. This pattern of interaction is a microcosm of sensitive caregiving: it demonstrates reliability, responsiveness, and positive affect, all of which are cornerstones for building a secure attachment. (A) is the Piagetian explanation. (B) is a plausible cognitive-social explanation but less specific to attachment theory's core focus on security and sensitivity. (D) is incorrect; the game is with the caregiver, not a stranger.

Question 5

Both Piaget's constructivist theory and Ainsworth's attachment research rely heavily on detailed observations of children's behavior to make inferences about their internal worlds. A key methodological difference, however, lies in the type of behavior considered most important. Which statement best reflects this difference?

Piaget focused on children's errors in logical tasks, while Ainsworth focused on their affective responses to separation and reunion. (correct answer)
Piaget prioritized verbal explanations from children, while Ainsworth prioritized non-verbal cues from infants.
Piaget conducted naturalistic observations in the home, while Ainsworth developed structured laboratory experiments.
Piaget was interested in universal behaviors, while Ainsworth was interested only in individual, idiosyncratic behaviors.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. This choice accurately captures the methodological focus of both researchers. Piaget's genius was in analyzing the patterns of errors children made on tasks like conservation and class inclusion, which he saw as windows into their developing logical structures. Ainsworth's key contribution was the Strange Situation, a procedure designed specifically to elicit and observe the infant's emotional and behavioral responses (affective displays) to the stress of separation from and reunion with their caregiver. (B) is partially true but less precise; Piaget also observed non-verbal behavior, and Ainsworth was interested in older children's verbalizations. (C) is reversed; Ainsworth began with naturalistic observations in Uganda and Baltimore, which led to the structured Strange Situation lab task. Piaget also used a 'clinical method' which was a structured observation. (D) is incorrect; Ainsworth was interested in identifying universal patterns of attachment, not just idiosyncratic behaviors.

Question 6

A 4-year-old boy insists that his teddy bear is sad because it was left outside in the rain. A Piagetian theorist would identify this as animistic thinking, characteristic of the preoperational stage. An attachment theorist, however, might offer a different interpretation. Which of the following explanations for the boy's behavior would be most consistent with the principles of attachment theory?

The boy is displacing his own feelings of distress or neglect onto the bear, reflecting his internal working model of caregiving relationships. (correct answer)
The boy is demonstrating a lack of conservation, failing to understand that the bear's emotional state remains constant regardless of location.
The boy is using the bear as a transitional object to soothe himself, indicating a secure base has been successfully established with his caregiver.
The boy is exhibiting stranger anxiety, treating the 'outside' as an unfamiliar and threatening context for the bear.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. Attachment theory posits that children develop internal working models of relationships based on their experiences with caregivers. These models shape how they interpret social and emotional events. A plausible interpretation from this perspective is that the child is projecting his own feelings, learned from his attachment history (e.g., feeling sad when 'left behind'), onto the bear. (B) Lack of conservation is a Piagetian concept, not an attachment one, and relates to physical properties, not emotions. (C) While the bear could be a transitional object, the boy's specific attribution of sadness due to being 'left outside' points more toward a projection of relational dynamics than simple self-soothing. (D) Stranger anxiety is a specific developmental milestone in infancy and is not relevant to this pre-schooler's symbolic interpretation of an event.

Question 7

An 18-month-old child in the Strange Situation cries intensely when their caregiver leaves. Upon the caregiver's return, the child continues to cry, pushes the caregiver away when picked up, but also clings to them. According to attachment theory, this behavior is indicative of an insecure-ambivalent attachment style. Which of Piaget's cognitive achievements is the most direct and necessary prerequisite for the child to experience the separation distress seen in this scenario?

Egocentrism, as the child is unable to understand the caregiver's reason for leaving.
Symbolic representation, allowing the child to associate the caregiver with feelings of safety.
Object permanence, as the child must possess a mental representation of the caregiver to know they are absent. (correct answer)
Centration, because the child focuses solely on the distressing aspect of the caregiver's absence.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Separation distress, a key component of attachment behavior, is only possible if the child has a stable mental representation of the caregiver. This cognitive achievement is what Jean Piaget termed object permanence—the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or heard. Without this, the child would not be aware of the caregiver's absence and therefore would not protest it. (A) Egocentrism is a feature of the preoperational stage and describes the inability to take another's perspective; while true of the child, it is not the prerequisite for experiencing separation distress itself. (B) Symbolic representation is a broader concept that develops later in the sensorimotor stage; object permanence is the specific, foundational achievement required here. (D) Centration is a limitation of the preoperational stage and is not the foundational concept necessary for separation anxiety.

Question 8

Both Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Bowlby's theory of attachment view the child as an active participant in their own development. However, the theories diverge significantly on the primary mechanism that drives developmental change. Which of the following statements best captures this fundamental difference?

Piaget believed development is driven by resolving psychosocial crises, while Bowlby believed it is driven by biological maturation.
Piaget emphasized the process of cognitive disequilibrium and adaptation, while Bowlby emphasized the establishment of a secure base for emotional regulation and exploration. (correct answer)
Piaget proposed that social interaction with more knowledgeable others is key, while Bowlby argued that interaction with the physical environment is paramount.
Piaget viewed language development as the primary engine of cognitive growth, while Bowlby saw the development of motor skills as essential for maintaining proximity.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. This option accurately contrasts the core mechanisms of each theory. For Piaget, the engine of cognitive development is the cycle of experiencing a mismatch between existing schemas and reality (disequilibrium), leading to adaptation (assimilation/accommodation). For Bowlby, the primary mechanism is the development of an attachment bond that provides psychological security (a secure base), which in turn enables the child to explore the world and develop healthily. (A) Psychosocial crises are central to Erikson's theory, not Piaget's. (C) This reverses the theories; Vygotsky emphasized social interaction with more knowledgeable others, while Piaget emphasized interaction with the physical environment. (D) Piaget saw language as a reflection of symbolic thought, not its primary engine; Bowlby focused on a suite of attachment behaviors, not just motor skills.

Question 9

An adolescent reflects on a moral dilemma, stating, "The law should be obeyed, but a law that violates fundamental human rights is unjust and should be challenged. The principle of justice is more important than the written rule." From a Piagetian perspective, this type of reasoning is characteristic of the formal operational stage. How would attachment theory predict the development of such a capacity for abstract moral reasoning?

Attachment theory does not make direct predictions about abstract moral reasoning, as it focuses on social and emotional development in early childhood.
A secure attachment provides the emotional stability and confidence needed to explore complex ideas and question authority without fear of abandonment. (correct answer)
An insecure-avoidant attachment promotes the early development of abstract logic as a defense mechanism against emotional dependency.
An insecure-ambivalent attachment leads to heightened sensitivity to issues of fairness, accelerating the development of post-conventional morality.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. While Piaget's theory directly addresses cognitive stages, attachment theory provides a foundational context for development. A secure attachment fosters a sense of safety, self-worth, and trust. This emotional security is believed to be the foundation from which an individual can confidently explore the world, including the world of complex, abstract ideas like justice and morality. It enables the adolescent to question rules and norms without undue anxiety. (A) is too strong; while not its primary focus, attachment theory's concept of the internal working model has implications for later development. (C) and (D) make inaccurate connections; while insecure attachment affects development, it's not typically predicted to selectively accelerate this kind of healthy, principled reasoning.

Question 10

A 6-year-old child correctly solves a conservation of number task but fails a conservation of liquid task. Piaget referred to this phenomenon as horizontal décalage. An attachment theorist might be interested in the contextual factors influencing this performance gap. Which hypothesis would be most consistent with attachment theory?

The child's internal working model is disorganized, leading to inconsistent application of logical schemas across different domains.
The child's cognitive structures for number and liquid are in different substages of the concrete operational period, developing independently.
The presence of an unfamiliar experimenter could induce attachment-related anxiety, temporarily impairing the cognitive resources needed for the more difficult liquid task. (correct answer)
The child's egocentrism is more pronounced when dealing with continuous quantities like liquid than with discrete objects like pennies.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Attachment theory emphasizes the role of emotional states and relational security in all aspects of functioning, including cognitive performance. A plausible hypothesis from this perspective is that mild stress or anxiety (perhaps from being in a test situation with a stranger) can disrupt complex cognitive processes. Since conservation of liquid is typically harder for children than conservation of number, its performance might be more vulnerable to this emotional disruption. (A) While a disorganized attachment would cause issues, it's a specific and severe category; the explanation in C is more broadly applicable. (B) is a purely Piagetian explanation, restating the definition of horizontal décalage without incorporating attachment theory. (D) is a Piagetian explanation that incorrectly applies the concept of egocentrism.

Question 11

A child is shown two identical balls of clay. One is rolled into a sausage shape. When asked which has more clay, the 5-year-old points to the sausage, saying it is 'bigger.' This is a classic failure of conservation. How would Piaget's theory and attachment theory differ in their primary explanation for why a child might consistently fail this task?

Piaget would focus on the child's inability to mentally reverse the action, whereas an attachment theorist might focus on the child's temperament.
Piaget would attribute it to the cognitive limitation of centration, whereas an attachment theorist might investigate if the child's anxiety in the testing situation inhibits performance. (correct answer)
Piaget would claim the child has not yet reached the concrete operational stage, whereas an attachment theorist would argue the child lacks an adequate internal working model.
Piaget would see it as a lack of physical experience with clay, whereas an attachment theorist would see it as a lack of secure emotional experiences.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. This choice presents the most accurate and distinct explanations from each theory. Piaget's direct explanation for this failure is centration—the child focuses on one salient dimension (length) and ignores others (width), and lacks the logical operation of reversibility. An attachment theorist's primary contribution would be to consider the emotional and relational context. They would investigate whether factors like stress or the relationship with the experimenter could be impacting the child's ability to demonstrate their highest level of cognitive functioning. (A) Temperament is a related but distinct concept from attachment. (C) The attachment theory explanation is too vague; a weak internal working model is not a direct explanation for a specific cognitive error. (D) While Piaget values physical experience, his core explanation is about logical structures, and the attachment explanation is overly simplistic.

Question 12

A 2-year-old sees a zebra for the first time and says, "Horsey!" According to Piaget, this is an example of assimilation. Now, consider a 2-year-old with a disorganized attachment style, characterized by contradictory behaviors toward the caregiver. How might the concept of assimilation be used differently to describe a behavior typical of this attachment style?

The child assimilates the caregiver into a schema of both comfort and fear, leading to approach-avoidance behavior. (correct answer)
The child fails to assimilate the caregiver's return after a separation, leading to a dazed and confused reaction.
The child only assimilates positive interactions with the caregiver, ignoring or failing to process negative ones.
The child assimilates all adults into a 'caregiver' schema, showing indiscriminate friendliness.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. This question requires applying a Piagetian concept (assimilation) to explain a phenomenon from attachment theory (disorganized attachment). Disorganized attachment often arises from situations where the caregiver is both a source of comfort and a source of fear (e.g., in cases of abuse or neglect). The child's contradictory behaviors can be conceptualized as an attempt to assimilate this paradoxical experience into a single, incoherent schema of the caregiver, resulting in simultaneous approach ('horsey' is like my known schema) and avoidance. (B) This describes the behavior but doesn't use the concept of assimilation correctly. (C) This would be more characteristic of a defensive exclusion seen in avoidant attachment. (D) Indiscriminate friendliness is associated with institutionalized children and some insecure patterns, but the core of disorganization is the contradictory behavior toward the primary caregiver.

Question 13

Both Piaget and Bowlby were influenced by evolutionary biology. However, their application of evolutionary principles led to different predictions about the most crucial environment for development. Which statement accurately reflects this difference?

Piaget predicted that the most crucial environment is one rich in physical objects to manipulate, fostering cognitive adaptation.
Bowlby predicted that the most crucial environment is the one that provides the most cognitive stimulation through early education.
Piaget argued that the social environment of peers is most important for overcoming egocentrism.
Bowlby argued that the environment of evolutionary adaptedness shaped the infant's need for a responsive caregiver. (correct answer)

Explanation: The correct answer is D. This question gets at the theoretical underpinnings of both theories. Bowlby's theory is explicitly evolutionary, arguing that the attachment system is a behavioral system that evolved because proximity to a caregiver was critical for survival in our ancestral past (the 'environment of evolutionary adaptedness'). This is the core of his evolutionary argument. (A) and (C) describe aspects of Piaget's theory, but they are mechanisms within his framework, not his core evolutionary prediction. Piaget's 'evolutionary' view was more about the development of logical structures as adaptive for the species. (B) misrepresents Bowlby, who focused on emotional responsiveness, not formal cognitive stimulation.

Question 14

A 3-year-old is playing with a new peer. The peer suddenly starts to cry. The 3-year-old watches, then offers the crying child their own favorite blanket. Piaget would likely label this an example of egocentric behavior, as the child assumes what is comforting to them will be comforting to others. Which prediction from attachment theory offers a complementary, rather than contradictory, explanation for this prosocial attempt?

The child's internal working model, if secure, promotes empathy and the expectation that comfort is a valid response to distress. (correct answer)
The child is demonstrating an insecure-ambivalent pattern by trying to care for the peer to alleviate their own anxiety.
The child's actions are a form of social referencing, checking to see if their own blanket is an appropriate response.
The child has not yet developed object permanence regarding emotions and believes their blanket can physically transfer comfort.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. This asks for a complementary explanation. A secure attachment is built on experiences of receiving comfort when distressed. This experience builds an internal working model where distress is met with care. Thus, when the child sees a peer in distress, their model of relationships suggests that offering comfort is the appropriate response. This prosocial impulse (from attachment theory) is then filtered through their current cognitive limitation (egocentrism from Piaget's theory), resulting in the specific action of offering their own blanket. The explanations work together. (B) This is a possible but less direct explanation. (C) Social referencing is about seeking information from a caregiver in an ambiguous situation, which is not what is happening. (D) is a confused application of Piagetian concepts.

Question 15

A 10-year-old child in Piaget's concrete operational stage can successfully reason that if A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C. This is called transitive inference. An attachment theorist would be most interested in how the child applies this same logical capacity to which of the following?

Understanding complex scientific concepts like the food chain.
Solving multi-step mathematical word problems.
Navigating and understanding social hierarchies within their peer group. (correct answer)
Learning the rules and strategies of a complex board game.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Attachment theory is primarily concerned with social relationships. While Piaget focused on logical reasoning about physical objects, an attachment theorist would be interested in how these emerging cognitive skills are applied to the social world. Understanding social hierarchies (e.g., 'If Sarah is friends with the most popular girl, and I am friends with Sarah, then my social standing improves') is a direct social application of the same transitive logic. This links the cognitive advancement described by Piaget to the domain of interest for attachment theorists. (A), (B), and (D) are all valid applications of concrete operational thought, but they are not the primary focus of attachment theory.

Question 16

Imagine a child who grew up in a chaotic and unpredictable environment, resulting in an insecure attachment. As an adolescent, this individual struggles with scientific reasoning, finding it difficult to form and systematically test hypotheses. Piaget's theory would attribute this to a failure to consolidate formal operational thought. Attachment theory would offer a potential underlying reason for this cognitive difficulty, suggesting that:

the adolescent's cognitive development was arrested in the concrete operational stage due to lack of educational opportunities.
the lack of a secure base in childhood hindered the development of the exploratory drive necessary for scientific inquiry. (correct answer)
the adolescent's internal working model is too rigid, preventing the assimilation of new, abstract scientific principles.
the adolescent is still grappling with egocentrism, which prevents them from objectively evaluating evidence.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. A core tenet of attachment theory is that the caregiver acts as a 'secure base' from which the child can explore the world. This exploratory drive is not just physical but also cognitive. A child who lacks a secure base may be more anxious, less confident, and less willing to take the intellectual risks involved in forming and testing hypotheses. Their cognitive energy might be preoccupied with safety and relationship concerns, hindering the full development of higher-order cognitive skills like formal operational thought. (A) is a possible explanation but doesn't link to attachment theory. (C) uses attachment terminology (IWM) but misapplies it; rigidity is not the primary issue. (D) Egocentrism is a feature of an earlier stage and less relevant here.

Question 17

A 7-year-old understands that her mother is also a daughter, a sister, and a doctor. According to Piaget, this ability to hold multiple classifications in mind simultaneously is a hallmark of the concrete operational stage. How does the concept of the 'internal working model' from attachment theory relate to a similar cognitive task?

The internal working model is a schema that, when complex, allows the child to understand that the caregiver can have multiple roles and relationships. (correct answer)
The internal working model prevents the child from understanding these multiple classifications due to its focus on the caregiver-child dyad.
The internal working model is an emotional, not cognitive, construct and is therefore unrelated to the logic of classification.
The internal working model at this age is still egocentric, causing the child to believe their relationship with the mother is the only important one.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. The internal working model (IWM) is a cognitive schema, albeit one with strong emotional components. It's a mental representation of the self, others, and relationships. As a child's cognitive abilities develop (as described by Piaget), their IWM also becomes more complex and sophisticated. The ability to de-center and understand multiple classifications can be applied to the IWM, allowing the child to represent their mother not just as 'my caregiver' but as a person with a complex identity and multiple roles. (B) and (D) incorrectly characterize the IWM as a purely limiting or egocentric structure. (C) is incorrect because the IWM is explicitly a cognitive concept that integrates emotion and cognition.

Question 18

A teenager is caught cheating on a test. When confronted, he argues, "Everyone else does it, so it's not a big deal. The real problem is the teacher who made the test too hard." This reasoning reflects a difficulty in taking responsibility and an externalization of blame. If we assume this teenager had an insecure-avoidant attachment in infancy, how would the predictions of Piaget and attachment theory jointly explain this behavior?

Piaget: Formal operational thinking is used to create self-serving justifications. Attachment: The IWM involves a defensive exclusion of negative self-attributes. (correct answer)
Piaget: Concrete operational logic is misapplied to a moral dilemma. Attachment: The IWM reflects a disorganized view of authority figures.
Piaget: Preoperational egocentrism persists into adolescence. Attachment: A history of sensitive caregiving was lacking.
Piaget: Sensorimotor schemas are being inappropriately applied. Attachment: The secure base was not adequately formed.

Explanation: The correct answer is A. This question requires a sophisticated integration of both theories. The teenager's argument, while self-serving, is abstract ('everyone does it,' 'the problem is the system'), which requires formal operational thought (a Piagetian concept). The content of the argument reflects a pattern consistent with an avoidant attachment style. Individuals with this style often develop a defensive IWM that minimizes personal faults and externalizes blame to maintain a sense of invulnerability and avoid negative emotions associated with failure. Thus, the cognitive capacity (Piaget) is used to serve the emotional and relational strategy (Attachment). (B) The logic is more abstract than concrete. (C) While egocentric, it's a higher-order form than preoperational egocentrism. (D) Sensorimotor schemas are irrelevant.

Question 19

It suggests that the cognitive underpinnings for attachment, such as recognizing a specific caregiver, may be present earlier than Piaget's stages would predict. (correct answer)
It proves that attachment is a purely emotional process, independent of cognitive development.
It validates Piaget's sensorimotor stage but suggests that attachment behaviors like smiling are reflexes, not cognitive events.
It shows that Bowlby's theory is more accurate because it focuses on observable behaviors rather than unobservable mental representations.

Question 20

Egocentrism, as the child is unable to understand the caregiver's reason for leaving.
Symbolic representation, allowing the child to associate the caregiver with feelings of safety.
Object permanence, as the child must possess a mental representation of the caregiver to know they are absent. (correct answer)
Centration, because the child focuses solely on the distressing aspect of the caregiver's absence.