Psychology Quiz: Cognitive Biases And Heuristics
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Cognitive Biases And HeuristicsQuestion 1 of 20

A stock market investor reads five different financial analyses of a company they have invested in. Four of the reports are cautiously optimistic, while one is highly negative, pointing out significant risks. The investor spends hours scrutinizing the negative report, looking for methodological flaws and author bias, but accepts the four positive reports at face value without similar critical examination. This differential treatment of evidence is a primary indicator of:

availability heuristic, as positive information about their investment is more mentally available.
loss aversion, as the investor is disproportionately motivated to avoid the pain of a financial loss.
confirmation bias, as the investor is actively attempting to discredit information that contradicts their belief in the investment.
dunning-kruger effect, as the investor overestimates their own ability to evaluate financial reports.
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Psychology Quiz

Psychology Quiz: Cognitive Biases And Heuristics

Practice Cognitive Biases And Heuristics in Psychology with focused quiz questions that help you check what you know, review explanations, and build confidence with test-style prompts.

What this quiz covers

This quiz focuses on Cognitive Biases And Heuristics, giving you a quick way to practice the rules, question types, and explanations that matter most for Psychology.

How to use this quiz

Try each quiz question before looking at the correct answer. Use the explanations to review missed ideas, then come back to similar questions until the pattern feels familiar.

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Question 1

A stock market investor reads five different financial analyses of a company they have invested in. Four of the reports are cautiously optimistic, while one is highly negative, pointing out significant risks. The investor spends hours scrutinizing the negative report, looking for methodological flaws and author bias, but accepts the four positive reports at face value without similar critical examination. This differential treatment of evidence is a primary indicator of:

  1. availability heuristic, as positive information about their investment is more mentally available.
  2. loss aversion, as the investor is disproportionately motivated to avoid the pain of a financial loss.
  3. confirmation bias, as the investor is actively attempting to discredit information that contradicts their belief in the investment. (correct answer)
  4. dunning-kruger effect, as the investor overestimates their own ability to evaluate financial reports.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Confirmation bias isn't just about seeking out agreeable information; it also involves subjecting disagreeable information to a higher level of scrutiny. The investor is working hard to reject the validity of the contradictory report while uncritically accepting the supporting ones. This is a classic manifestation of confirmation bias in action. A is incorrect because the investor is actively engaging with the negative report, not just relying on what's easily available. B, loss aversion, might explain why they are motivated to hold their belief, but confirmation bias describes the cognitive process they are using to do so. D is a different cognitive bias related to self-assessment of competence.

Question 2

During a couple's therapy session, Partner A accuses Partner B of 'never listening.' Partner A easily recalls three recent instances where Partner B was distracted during a conversation, but fails to remember the many times Partner B listened attentively. This selective memory recall is most characteristic of:

  1. the availability heuristic, because the negative instances were more emotionally charged.
  2. the confirmation bias, because Partner A is retrieving memories that support the belief that Partner B is a poor listener. (correct answer)
  3. the fundamental attribution error, because Partner A is attributing the behavior to Partner B's disposition.
  4. hindsight bias, because Partner A believes the instances of not listening were predictable.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Partner A has formed a belief or hypothesis ('Partner B never listens'). They are then engaging in a biased memory search, selectively retrieving instances that confirm this belief while ignoring or failing to recall disconfirming evidence. This is a classic example of confirmation bias operating on autobiographical memory. While the negative instances might be emotionally salient (related to A), the process described is an active filtering of memory to support a specific, pre-existing complaint, which is the hallmark of confirmation bias.

Question 3

In a group project, members are asked to estimate what percentage of the total work they personally contributed. When the percentages from all members are summed, the total often significantly exceeds 100%. Which cognitive bias provides the best explanation for this overestimation of individual contribution?

  1. Self-serving bias, where individuals attribute success to themselves to enhance self-esteem.
  2. Confirmation bias, where individuals seek evidence of their own hard work while ignoring others' efforts.
  3. Availability heuristic, where an individual's own contributions are more easily recalled than the contributions of others. (correct answer)
  4. Fundamental attribution error, where individuals attribute their own work to effort and others' work to luck.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. An individual's own efforts, struggles, and hours spent on a project are much more salient and easily retrievable from their memory than the efforts of their teammates. This differential availability of information leads each person to naturally overestimate their own contribution relative to the whole. While A (self-serving bias) is a related motivational bias, the availability heuristic provides the core cognitive mechanism for why this specific estimation error occurs so consistently, even without a strong need to boost self-esteem. B is less fitting because it implies an active search for confirming evidence rather than a passive effect of memory. D is incorrect as it deals with attributions of cause (disposition vs. situation), not estimations of quantity.

Question 4

A physician has just treated a patient for a rare but severe tropical disease. The next day, a new patient presents with a common set of symptoms (fever, fatigue) that could indicate dozens of illnesses, including the rare disease. The physician immediately orders expensive and invasive tests for the tropical disease, even though statistically, a common flu is far more likely. Which cognitive bias best explains the physician's decision-making process?

  1. Confirmation bias, because the physician is seeking evidence to support an initial diagnostic hypothesis formed about the patient.
  2. Availability heuristic, because the recent and memorable case of the rare disease is easily retrieved from memory, inflating its perceived likelihood. (correct answer)
  3. Hindsight bias, because the physician believes the symptoms were an obvious indicator of the rare disease after making the connection.
  4. Representativeness heuristic, because the physician is judging the likelihood of the disease based on how well the symptoms match a prototype.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. The recent, vivid case of the rare disease makes it highly 'available' in the physician's mind, leading them to overestimate its probability. A is incorrect because the physician is not yet confirming a belief about this specific patient, but rather is being influenced by a prior, unrelated case. C is incorrect as hindsight bias would occur after a diagnosis is confirmed, not during the diagnostic process. D is incorrect because the symptoms are described as common and not a particularly good match for a rare disease prototype over a common one; the key factor is the recency of the previous case, not the similarity of symptoms to a category prototype.

Question 5

A student is writing a research paper on the effects of caffeine on memory. The student's initial hypothesis is that caffeine has a positive effect. When searching for sources, the student primarily uses keywords like 'caffeine benefits memory' and 'caffeine enhances cognition,' and is more likely to click on and save articles with titles that suggest a positive link. This search strategy is a direct manifestation of:

  1. the confirmation bias. (correct answer)
  2. the availability heuristic.
  3. the representativeness heuristic.
  4. the anchoring heuristic.
Explanation: When you encounter questions about research methodology and decision-making, pay attention to how people's existing beliefs shape their information-gathering process. This question tests your understanding of cognitive biases that affect how we seek and interpret information. The student's search strategy perfectly demonstrates confirmation bias - the tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in ways that confirm our pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses. Notice how the student already believes caffeine positively affects memory, then specifically uses search terms like "caffeine benefits memory" and gravitates toward articles with positive-sounding titles. This selective information gathering is designed to support what they already think is true. Let's examine why the other options don't fit. The availability heuristic (B) involves judging probability based on how easily examples come to mind - but the student isn't making probability judgments here. The representativeness heuristic (C) occurs when we judge similarity to mental prototypes, which isn't happening in this research scenario. The anchoring heuristic (D) involves being overly influenced by the first piece of information encountered, but this student's bias stems from their initial hypothesis, not from being "anchored" to early information. Remember this pattern: confirmation bias appears whenever someone selectively seeks information that supports their existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory evidence. On psychology exams, watch for scenarios involving biased research methods, selective attention to supporting evidence, or dismissal of conflicting information - these are classic confirmation bias indicators.

Question 6

When asked to estimate the annual number of deaths from tornadoes versus deaths from asthma, most people incorrectly guess that tornadoes cause more fatalities. This is despite the fact that asthma is responsible for many more deaths per year. The most likely cognitive reason for this widespread misjudgment is that:

  1. tornado deaths receive more vivid and dramatic media coverage, making them more salient and easily recalled. (correct answer)
  2. people use a representativeness heuristic, and tornadoes better fit the prototype of a 'cause of death' than a chronic illness.
  3. confirmation bias leads people to seek out information about dramatic events like tornadoes more frequently.
  4. people anchor on the high number of deaths in a single, catastrophic tornado event when making their estimate.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. This is a classic example of the availability heuristic. Tornadoes are dramatic, visually compelling events that get extensive media coverage. This makes instances of tornado deaths very vivid and easy to recall (highly available in memory), leading people to overestimate their frequency. Deaths from asthma are more common but are individual, less dramatic events and receive far less media attention. B is incorrect because both are valid causes of death; it's not about matching a prototype. C is incorrect because the judgment is typically made based on passive information exposure (media), not an active search for confirming evidence. D is incorrect because the anchoring effect would require being given a specific number to anchor on; the availability heuristic provides a better explanation for the general population's misperception.

Question 7

A researcher hypothesizes that a new teaching method improves student engagement. During a classroom observation, the researcher diligently records every instance of students raising their hands and asking questions but pays less attention to and makes fewer notes about periods of student inattentiveness or off-task conversation. This methodological flaw is most directly a result of:

  1. observer-expectancy effect, where the researcher's expectations are subconsciously communicated to the students.
  2. confirmation bias, where the researcher selectively attends to data that supports the initial hypothesis. (correct answer)
  3. availability heuristic, where the most memorable student behaviors are the ones most likely to be recorded.
  4. sampling bias, where the observed classroom is not representative of all classrooms.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The researcher is selectively gathering evidence that supports their hypothesis (the new method is effective) while neglecting evidence that would contradict it. This selective attention to and recording of information is the core mechanism of confirmation bias in a research context. A is incorrect because the stem describes the observer's data collection, not their influence on the subjects' behavior. C is incorrect because the selective recording is driven by a hypothesis, not by the random memorability or salience of certain behaviors. D describes a different type of research error related to generalizability, not the specific error in the data collection process itself.

Question 8

Following extensive media coverage of a series of lottery winners in their state, Alex begins to spend a significant portion of their income on lottery tickets, believing their chances of winning are high. A friend, who is a staunch believer in personal discipline as the sole factor for financial success, sees Alex's behavior as proof of a lack of self-control. The friend's interpretation of Alex's behavior is best explained by  , while Alex's decision to buy tickets is best explained by  .

  1. availability heuristic; confirmation bias
  2. confirmation bias; availability heuristic (correct answer)
  3. fundamental attribution error; representativeness heuristic
  4. confirmation bias; confirmation bias
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The friend is engaging in confirmation bias by interpreting Alex's behavior in a way that supports their pre-existing belief that discipline is the key to financial outcomes. They see the behavior as 'proof' of their belief. Alex is influenced by the availability heuristic; the media coverage makes stories of winning easily accessible and memorable, leading them to overestimate the probability of winning. A incorrectly reverses the two concepts. C introduces other cognitive errors that do not fit as well; fundamental attribution error is about disposition vs. situation, and representativeness is about matching to a prototype, neither of which is the core issue. D is incorrect because Alex is not confirming a prior belief about winning but rather is having their probability estimate skewed by salient examples.

Question 9

A person believes that their city's sports team performs better when they wear their 'lucky' jersey while watching the game. They vividly remember the several games the team won when they wore the jersey but tend to forget the games the team lost while they wore it. They also fail to consider the games the team won when they were not wearing the jersey. This pattern of memory and attention best illustrates:

  1. the availability heuristic, because the wins are more emotionally salient and thus more available in memory.
  2. an illusory correlation, which is maintained and strengthened by the confirmation bias. (correct answer)
  3. the representativeness heuristic, as the jersey-wearing fits their prototype of a 'dedicated fan'.
  4. the bandwagon effect, where they conform to the superstitious behaviors of other fans.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The person perceives a relationship between wearing the jersey and winning that does not actually exist (an illusory correlation). This false belief is then supported by confirmation bias, as they selectively recall evidence that confirms the correlation (wins while wearing the jersey) and ignore disconfirming evidence (losses while wearing it, and wins while not wearing it). A is plausible, as salient wins might be more available, but confirmation bias better explains the systematic ignoring of disconfirming evidence to uphold a specific belief. C and D describe different phenomena not directly related to the pattern of memory described.

Question 10

A political commentator makes a prediction that a certain candidate will win an election. Over the following weeks, the commentator's show predominantly features polls that favor their chosen candidate and interviews with analysts who share their prediction, while dismissing unfavorable polls as 'skewed' or 'outliers'. This behavior is a strategic use of which cognitive bias to persuade their audience?

  1. Availability heuristic, by making positive information more frequent and memorable.
  2. Confirmation bias, by selectively presenting evidence that supports their stated prediction. (correct answer)
  3. Bandwagon effect, by creating the impression that everyone supports the candidate.
  4. Anchoring effect, by establishing their prediction as a baseline for all future discussion.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The commentator is engaging in a public display of confirmation bias. They have a stated belief (their prediction) and are selectively choosing, presenting, and validating information that confirms this belief, while actively explaining away any disconfirming evidence. While this may also leverage A and C as side effects, the core mechanism described—the selective filtering and interpretation of evidence to fit a hypothesis—is confirmation bias.

Question 11

An individual who is strongly opposed to a particular public health policy is presented with a research article that contains a mix of findings, some supporting and some refuting the policy's effectiveness. If the individual is engaging in confirmation bias, what would be their most likely reaction to the article?

  1. They will judge the article as poorly conducted and biased, regardless of its actual quality, due to the presence of conflicting information.
  2. They will accurately recall the data that refutes the policy but will actively generate counterarguments to diminish its importance.
  3. They will primarily focus on, remember, and cite the findings that challenge the policy, while downplaying or forgetting the supportive findings. (correct answer)
  4. They will reassess their original position on the policy after objectively weighing all the evidence presented in the article.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values. This choice accurately describes this process: selectively attending to and remembering the parts of the article that align with their pre-existing negative view of the policy. A is a possible reaction, but it is a form of motivated reasoning rather than the core mechanism of confirmation bias, which involves selective interpretation of evidence. B is incorrect because confirmation bias makes it less likely that the person would accurately recall refuting data; they are more likely to ignore or forget it. D describes a rational, unbiased process, which is the opposite of confirmation bias.

Question 12

A manager needs to decide which of two employees to promote. Employee A recently completed a high-profile project successfully, which is fresh in the manager's mind. Employee B has a longer, consistent track record of high performance on numerous smaller projects over the past year, but has not had a major visible success recently. If the manager promotes Employee A primarily due to the recent success, this decision is most susceptible to the influence of:

  1. the recency effect component of the availability heuristic. (correct answer)
  2. confirmation bias, based on a pre-existing belief in Employee A's potential.
  3. the halo effect, where the successful project colors all of Employee A's other attributes.
  4. an anchoring effect, where the recent success serves as an initial piece of information.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. The availability heuristic is influenced by factors that make information easier to recall, such as recency and salience. The manager's decision is swayed by the recent, easily remembered success of Employee A, causing them to overweight this information compared to Employee B's longer-term performance. This is a specific manifestation of the availability heuristic known as the recency effect. B is incorrect because the stem does not provide evidence of a pre-existing belief being confirmed. C, the halo effect, is related but describes a global impression (e.g., 'this person is good') influencing specific judgments; availability provides a more precise mechanism (ease of recall due to recency). D is incorrect because anchoring typically involves a numerical starting point influencing a subsequent estimate, which is not the primary process here.

Question 13

A detective is investigating a robbery and quickly forms a theory that the victim's estranged cousin is the culprit. During subsequent interviews, the detective asks leading questions that presume the cousin's guilt (e.g., 'Where did you hide the stolen items?') and tends to interpret the cousin's nervous denials as signs of deception. Contradictory evidence, such as a solid alibi, is scrutinized much more harshly than evidence that seems to fit the initial theory. This entire investigative pattern is a clear example of:

  1. the availability heuristic, because the detective is relying on a readily available suspect stereotype.
  2. belief perseverance, because the detective is refusing to change their theory once it has been formed.
  3. the confirmation bias, because the detective is actively seeking and interpreting evidence to support an initial hypothesis. (correct answer)
  4. the fundamental attribution error, because the detective is attributing the cousin's behavior to dispositional guilt.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. The scenario perfectly illustrates confirmation bias: forming an early hypothesis and then seeking, interpreting, and weighting information in a way that confirms it. The leading questions and biased interpretation of evidence are classic examples of this process. A is incorrect because the issue is not about the ease of recalling a 'criminal cousin' stereotype but about the active process of proving a specific theory. B, belief perseverance, is related but refers more specifically to the outcome of holding onto a belief after it has been discredited; confirmation bias is the process of gathering and interpreting the evidence that often leads to belief perseverance. D might be occurring, but the overarching description of the investigation—from questioning style to evidence evaluation—is a textbook case of confirmation bias.

Question 14

In a famous study, participants were asked whether the letter 'K' appears more often as the first letter of a word or as the third letter. Most people incorrectly said the first letter. This error occurs because it is much easier to think of words that start with 'K' (e.g., 'kitchen', 'king') than to think of words where 'K' is the third letter (e.g., 'ask', 'bake'). This cognitive error is a direct demonstration of the:

  1. representativeness heuristic.
  2. confirmation bias.
  3. anchoring and adjustment heuristic.
  4. availability heuristic. (correct answer)
Explanation: The correct answer is D. This is a classic experiment by Tversky and Kahneman used to demonstrate the availability heuristic. The ease with which instances come to mind (availability) is used to judge frequency or probability. Because our minds are organized more like a dictionary, retrieving words that start with a certain letter is far easier than retrieving words with that letter in a different position. This ease of retrieval leads to an overestimation of the frequency of words starting with 'K'. A, B, and C describe different cognitive shortcuts that are not relevant to this specific task, which is based entirely on the ease of mental retrieval.

Question 15

Two groups of people are asked to read a passage about a day in the life of a woman named Jane. Group A is told beforehand that Jane is a librarian. Group B is told she is a real estate agent. The passage contains an equal number of details consistent with stereotypes of both professions. When later asked to recall details from the passage, members of Group A are more likely to remember details about Jane being quiet and enjoying reading, while Group B members are more likely to remember details about her being extroverted and a good negotiator. This outcome is best explained by:

  1. the availability heuristic influencing memory recall.
  2. the confirmation bias guiding the encoding and retrieval of information. (correct answer)
  3. the hindsight bias affecting how the information was interpreted.
  4. the anchoring effect of the initial label on subsequent judgments.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Once the participants form a belief about Jane based on her profession (the initial label), they selectively attend to and remember information that confirms the stereotype associated with that profession. This is a classic example of confirmation bias affecting memory. A is incorrect because the issue isn't the general ease of recalling certain types of information, but the selective recall based on a pre-existing schema. C is incorrect as there is no 'outcome' to be seen as inevitable. D is related, as the label acts as an anchor, but confirmation bias more precisely describes the mechanism of selectively processing information to fit that anchor.

Question 16

An effective strategy for debiasing a judgment that may be affected by the availability heuristic is to:

  1. carefully consider reasons why an initial judgment might be wrong.
  2. seek out information that aligns with one's initial emotional reaction.
  3. rely on a single, highly detailed and memorable case study.
  4. systematically retrieve and consider a broader, less salient set of relevant data. (correct answer)
Explanation: The correct answer is D. The availability heuristic occurs because decisions are based on a small, easily recalled (but potentially unrepresentative) sample of information. The most direct counter is to force a more systematic and comprehensive search for information, including less salient or recent data, such as statistical base rates. This directly counteracts the 'ease of retrieval' shortcut. A is a general debiasing strategy, but it is more directly targeted at overconfidence or confirmation bias. B and C would actually strengthen the availability heuristic rather than mitigate it.

Question 17

A marketing team is developing a campaign for a home security system. To maximize the perceived need for their product, which strategy would most effectively leverage the availability heuristic in potential customers?

  1. Presenting detailed statistical tables showing the gradual increase in property crime over 20 years.
  2. Featuring a vivid, emotional testimonial from a family whose home was recently burglarized. (correct answer)
  3. Providing a logical, step-by-step argument for why their system is superior to competitors'.
  4. Offering a significant discount for the first 100 customers to create a sense of scarcity.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The availability heuristic is powerfully influenced by vivid, concrete, and emotionally resonant examples. A testimonial from a victim makes the threat of burglary feel more immediate, personal, and probable than abstract statistics. This heightened 'availability' of the threat increases the perceived need for the product. A relies on systematic processing, not a heuristic. C is about persuasion through logic. D leverages the scarcity principle, a different psychological phenomenon.

Question 18

The confirmation bias can lead to poor decision-making because it encourages individuals to:

  1. overestimate the frequency of events that are easily brought to mind or have been recently publicized.
  2. become overly attached to an initial piece of information when making subsequent judgments.
  3. maintain a belief even after it has been definitively proven false through contradictory evidence.
  4. construct a narrow and potentially biased set of evidence upon which to base a conclusion. (correct answer)
Explanation: The correct answer is D. This choice accurately describes the central problem caused by confirmation bias. By seeking only supporting evidence and ignoring or discrediting opposing evidence, individuals build a skewed, incomplete, and self-validating information base. This flawed foundation naturally leads to poor decisions. A describes the availability heuristic. B describes anchoring. C describes belief perseverance, which is an outcome often caused by confirmation bias, but D better describes the process of the bias itself that leads to the poor decision.

Question 19

An individual's fear of flying is significantly heightened after watching a week of intensive news coverage about a plane crash. They decide to drive 12 hours for their vacation, despite knowing that, statistically, driving is far riskier than flying. The individual's decision is primarily driven by the fact that:

  1. the vivid and recent images of the crash make that specific risk feel more probable and immediate. (correct answer)
  2. the news coverage serves to confirm a pre-existing belief that flying is inherently unsafe.
  3. the individual is anchoring their risk assessment on the worst-case scenario presented by the media.
  4. the decision to drive represents a logical analysis of the newly presented information about aviation risk.
Explanation: This question tests your understanding of cognitive biases in decision-making, particularly how media exposure affects risk perception. When evaluating scenarios involving seemingly irrational choices despite statistical evidence, look for psychological mechanisms that distort judgment. The individual's behavior demonstrates the availability heuristic, where recent, vivid, and emotionally charged information makes certain risks feel more probable than they actually are. After watching intensive crash coverage, the graphic images create a strong mental impression that makes plane crashes seem more likely to happen. This psychological mechanism overrides statistical reasoning, leading to the counterintuitive choice to drive despite driving being statistically more dangerous. Option A correctly identifies this phenomenon - the vivid and recent crash images make that specific risk feel more probable and immediate, even though the actual probability hasn't changed. Option B incorrectly suggests confirmation bias, which would require evidence of pre-existing beliefs about flying. The question presents this as a response to new media exposure, not reinforcement of prior beliefs. Option C misapplies anchoring bias, which involves fixating on initial numerical information when making estimates. While worst-case scenarios are involved, the core issue is perceived probability, not numerical anchoring. Option D is clearly wrong because choosing a statistically riskier option cannot represent logical analysis of risk data. When you encounter psychology questions about decision-making, always consider how emotional salience and recent exposure can override rational analysis. The availability heuristic is particularly common in media-influence scenarios.

Question 20

A stock market investor reads five different financial analyses of a company they have invested in. Four of the reports are cautiously optimistic, while one is highly negative, pointing out significant risks. The investor spends hours scrutinizing the negative report, looking for methodological flaws and author bias, but accepts the four positive reports at face value without similar critical examination. This differential treatment of evidence is a primary indicator of:

  1. availability heuristic, as positive information about their investment is more mentally available.
  2. loss aversion, as the investor is disproportionately motivated to avoid the pain of a financial loss.
  3. confirmation bias, as the investor is actively attempting to discredit information that contradicts their belief in the investment. (correct answer)
  4. dunning-kruger effect, as the investor overestimates their own ability to evaluate financial reports.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Confirmation bias isn't just about seeking out agreeable information; it also involves subjecting disagreeable information to a higher level of scrutiny. The investor is working hard to reject the validity of the contradictory report while uncritically accepting the supporting ones. This is a classic manifestation of confirmation bias in action. A is incorrect because the investor is actively engaging with the negative report, not just relying on what's easily available. B, loss aversion, might explain why they are motivated to hold their belief, but confirmation bias describes the cognitive process they are using to do so. D is a different cognitive bias related to self-assessment of competence.