Philosophy Quiz: Act Vs Rule Utilitarianism
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Act Vs Rule UtilitarianismQuestion 1 of 20

Philosopher A: 'The rightness of an action depends on its adherence to a code of rules. We must first ask what code, if it were taught and its currency in society were protected, would have the best consequences. Then, we can assess individual actions by reference to that code.'

Philosopher B: 'No, that is a mistake. Rules are useful summaries of past experience. But in any given choice, the right action is the one that will actually produce the best results. To follow a rule when you know breaking it would be better is to worship the rule, not the good.'

The views expressed by Philosopher A and Philosopher B correspond, respectively, to:

Deontology and Act Utilitarianism
Rule Utilitarianism and Act Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism
Virtue Ethics and Deontology
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Philosophy Quiz: Act Vs Rule Utilitarianism

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Question 1

Philosopher A: 'The rightness of an action depends on its adherence to a code of rules. We must first ask what code, if it were taught and its currency in society were protected, would have the best consequences. Then, we can assess individual actions by reference to that code.'

Philosopher B: 'No, that is a mistake. Rules are useful summaries of past experience. But in any given choice, the right action is the one that will actually produce the best results. To follow a rule when you know breaking it would be better is to worship the rule, not the good.'

The views expressed by Philosopher A and Philosopher B correspond, respectively, to:

  1. Deontology and Act Utilitarianism
  2. Rule Utilitarianism and Act Utilitarianism (correct answer)
  3. Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism
  4. Virtue Ethics and Deontology
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Philosopher A provides a clear and accurate description of rule utilitarianism: actions are judged by their conformity to a set of rules, and the rules themselves are judged by the consequences of their general adoption. Philosopher B articulates the core principle of act utilitarianism: the right act is the one that produces the best results in that specific situation. Philosopher B's final sentence is a classic act-utilitarian critique of rule utilitarianism, often called the 'rule worship' objection. (A) is incorrect because Philosopher A's justification for the rules is consequentialist. (C) reverses the order. (D) misidentifies both positions.

Question 2

A society has a strict traffic rule: 'Always stop at red lights, without exception.' An ambulance driver at 3 a.m. is rushing a critical patient to the hospital. They approach a red light at a completely empty intersection, with clear visibility for miles in all directions. How would the reasoning of an act utilitarian (AU) and a strong rule utilitarian (RU), who accepts the rule as stated, most likely differ?

  1. The AU would run the light because it maximizes utility in this act, while the RU would also run the light because the rule implicitly does not apply to emergency services.
  2. The AU would stop because breaking a law always creates more disutility than following it, while the RU would run the light because saving a life is a higher-order rule.
  3. The AU would run the light as the benefit to the patient vastly outweighs the non-existent risk, whereas the RU would stop to uphold the absolute rule, the general observance of which maximizes public safety. (correct answer)
  4. Both the AU and RU would reason that running the light is permissible, but the AU would base this on consequences while the RU would base it on the driver's professional duty.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. It correctly identifies the core reasoning of each position. The AU focuses on the consequences of the specific act of running the light, which are clearly positive. The strong RU, as defined in the stem, is committed to upholding the rule because the rule's general acceptance has the best consequences, and thus must follow it even when doing so seems suboptimal in a particular case. (A) is incorrect because the stem specifies the RU accepts the rule 'without exception'. (B) inverts the likely conclusions of both theories. (D) incorrectly introduces deontological (duty-based) reasoning for the RU.

Question 3

A philosopher argues, 'Rule utilitarianism is incoherent. If a rule is established because it generally maximizes utility, but in a specific case, breaking the rule would maximize utility even more, then the utilitarian must, by their own core logic, break the rule. Therefore, rule utilitarianism offers no real guidance distinct from act utilitarianism.' This argument describes...

  1. ...the problem of demandingness, which claims utilitarianism asks too much of individuals.
  2. ...the collapse objection, suggesting that sophisticated rule-following ultimately becomes indistinguishable from case-by-case utility calculation. (correct answer)
  3. ...the problem of special obligations, which claims utilitarianism ignores duties to family and friends.
  4. ...the separateness of persons objection, which claims utilitarianism wrongly aggregates happiness across individuals.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The argument presented is a classic formulation of the collapse objection. It claims that the ultimate commitment of any utilitarian is to maximizing utility, and if a rule stands in the way of that, the rule must be broken, making the theory 'collapse' into simply acting to maximize utility on a case-by-case basis (i.e., act utilitarianism). (A), (C), and (D) are all distinct and well-known objections to utilitarianism, but they are not the one described in the stem.

Question 4

Consider two moral theories. Theory X states that an action is right if it conforms to a set of rules that have been accepted by a majority of people in a society. Theory Y states that an action is right if it conforms to the set of rules which, if universally followed, would produce the greatest good. Which statement correctly classifies these theories?

  1. Theory X is rule utilitarianism, and Theory Y is act utilitarianism.
  2. Theory X is a form of social contract theory, while Theory Y is rule utilitarianism. (correct answer)
  3. Both Theory X and Theory Y are different but equally valid versions of rule utilitarianism.
  4. Theory X is act utilitarianism, and Theory Y is a form of deontology.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Theory Y is a textbook definition of rule utilitarianism, as its justification for rules is their utility-maximizing consequence. Theory X, however, justifies rules based on agreement or acceptance by a group, which is characteristic of social contract theory, not rule utilitarianism. The key distinction is the criterion for what makes a rule valid: utility (RU) versus agreement (social contract). (A), (C), and (D) all mischaracterize one or both theories.

Question 5

A programmer is designing an algorithm for a self-driving car. The car must decide in an inevitable crash scenario between swerving to hit one person or staying on course to hit five people. A philosopher argues: 'The correct algorithm is the one that follows the rule, Always act to minimize the loss of life. This rule, if programmed into all self-driving cars, would lead to the best overall outcomes for society.' This philosopher's argument is a clear example of:

  1. Act utilitarian reasoning, because it focuses on the consequences of each individual crash scenario as it happens.
  2. Rule utilitarian reasoning, because the justification for the action is based on the positive consequences of its universal adoption as a rule. (correct answer)
  3. Deontological reasoning, because it establishes an absolute duty for the car to minimize loss of life, regardless of other factors.
  4. Virtue ethics reasoning, because it aims to program the car to behave as a virtuous agent would in the same situation.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. The key to the philosopher's argument is the justification: 'This rule, if programmed into all self-driving cars, would lead to the best overall outcomes.' The focus is on the consequences of the general adoption of a rule, which is the hallmark of rule utilitarianism. (A) is incorrect because the justification is not about a single act but the rule's general application. (C) is incorrect because the justification is explicitly consequentialist ('best overall outcomes'), not based on duty for duty's sake. (D) is incorrect because the reasoning is about rules and consequences, not character traits.

Question 6

A doctor has five patients who will each die without an organ transplant. A healthy individual, who is a perfect tissue match for all five, is in the waiting room for a routine check-up. An act utilitarian (AU) might argue for sacrificing the one to save the five. A rule utilitarian (RU) would likely condemn this act. What is the most accurate explanation for the rule utilitarian's differing conclusion?

  1. The RU believes that the act of killing is intrinsically wrong according to a moral law, regardless of its consequences.
  2. The RU calculates that the intense negative utility experienced by the one person sacrificed outweighs the positive utility for the five who are saved.
  3. The RU reasons that a general rule permitting doctors to sacrifice healthy individuals for their organs would lead to widespread fear and a collapse of trust in the healthcare system, producing less overall utility in the long run. (correct answer)
  4. The RU adopts the perspective of the one healthy person, whose fundamental right to life constitutes a moral rule that cannot be violated for the sake of the greater good.
Explanation: The correct answer is C because it accurately captures the logic of rule utilitarianism. The RU does not evaluate the single act in isolation but considers the consequences of adopting a general rule that would permit such actions. The widespread fear and breakdown of social trust would lead to far worse outcomes than the five deaths in the initial scenario. (A) is incorrect because it describes deontological reasoning, not rule utilitarianism. (B) describes a possible act-utilitarian calculation but misrepresents why the RU would disagree; the RU's focus is on the rule, not just a different calculation of the single act. (D) uses the language of rights-based deontology, which is distinct from the consequentialist foundation of rule utilitarianism.

Question 7

The act utilitarian might reason: 'In this specific case, breaking my promise to meet a friend for lunch in order to help an accident victim on the roadside will clearly produce more overall happiness. The victim's need is great, my friend's disappointment is minor.' The rule utilitarian might arrive at the same conclusion—that one should help the victim—but their reasoning would differ significantly.

Based on the passage, which of the following best articulates the rule utilitarian's reasoning for helping the victim?

  1. The rule utilitarian would determine that the immediate happiness of the accident victim is the only morally relevant factor in this specific situation.
  2. The rule utilitarian would reason from a general rule 'Keep your promises,' but recognize that this rule is overridden by the immediate need to maximize utility in this emergency.
  3. The rule utilitarian would argue that the optimal set of moral rules for a society includes a rule of mutual aid in emergencies, and this rule takes precedence over a general rule about promise-keeping in this context. (correct answer)
  4. The rule utilitarian would conclude that helping is the right action because it aligns with the virtuous character trait of compassion, which generally promotes utility.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. It captures the sophisticated reasoning of a rule utilitarian, which involves justifying an action based on its conformity to the best set of rules, which may include rules about how to handle conflicts between other rules (e.g., aid in emergencies trumps promise-keeping). (A) describes act-utilitarian reasoning. (B) is plausible but less precise; it sounds like the agent is breaking the rule to maximize utility, which verges on the 'collapse' objection. The RU's justification is that the action conforms to a better, more nuanced rule or set of rules. (D) introduces reasoning from virtue ethics, which is a different moral framework.

Question 8

Imagine a world where the general population gains immense pleasure from watching a single, randomly chosen person be publicly humiliated once a year. The total pleasure of the millions of spectators outweighs the severe suffering of the one individual. Which statement best contrasts how an act utilitarian (AU) and a rule utilitarian (RU) might analyze this scenario?

  1. The AU would likely have to condone the humiliation as it maximizes overall utility in this instance, while the RU might condemn it by arguing that a rule permitting such spectacles would foster cruelty and insecurity, leading to worse long-term consequences. (correct answer)
  2. Both the AU and the RU would condemn the humiliation, because the intrinsic wrongness of violating a person's dignity is a primary principle in all forms of utilitarianism.
  3. The AU would condemn the act based on the single person's inviolable rights, while the RU would condone it because the rule 'do what the majority enjoys' would maximize utility.
  4. The RU would have to condone the humiliation because the rule 'maximize pleasure' is the most fundamental utilitarian rule, while the AU could condemn it by focusing on the long-term suffering of the victim.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. This classic 'scapegoat' scenario highlights a key difference. The AU, focusing only on the consequences of the single act, might be forced into the counterintuitive conclusion that the act is right because total utility is positive. The RU, however, can reject this by considering the consequences of a rule allowing such actions. Such a rule would likely create a society full of fear, insecurity, and cruelty, which would have massive disutility, thus making the rule (and the act conforming to it) wrong. (B) is incorrect because utilitarianism does not recognize 'intrinsic wrongness' apart from disutility. (C) and (D) both invert the likely reasoning of the two theories.

Question 9

A philosopher proposes a version of rule utilitarianism where the moral code does not aim to maximize utility, but rather to ensure that if everyone followed it, utility would be at a certain high, 'sufficient' level. How does this proposal relate to standard act and rule utilitarianism?

  1. It is identical to standard rule utilitarianism, as ensuring a high level of utility is functionally the same as maximizing it.
  2. It is a form of act utilitarianism because it allows for flexibility in achieving the utility target rather than adhering to rigid rules.
  3. It is a departure from both standard forms, as it replaces the 'maximizing' demand of classical utilitarianism with a 'satisficing' or 'sufficientarian' one. (correct answer)
  4. It is equivalent to the 'collapse' version of rule utilitarianism, where every act is judged by its own immediate utility.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Standard (or classical) utilitarianism, in both its act and rule forms, is a maximizing theory. It demands choosing the act or rule that produces the most good possible. This proposal changes that core requirement to one of achieving a 'good enough' or 'sufficient' level of utility. This is known as a 'satisficing' or 'sufficientarian' approach, which is a significant departure from the classical framework. (A) is incorrect because 'sufficient' and 'maximal' are conceptually distinct. (B) and (D) are incorrect because the theory remains rule-based, not act-based.

Question 10

A politician is considering voting for a bill that would slightly inconvenience 99% of the population to provide a crucial social program for the poorest 1%. The total utility calculation is complex, and it is unclear whether the bill would produce a net positive. Which question best represents the initial step in a rule utilitarian's deliberation process?

  1. Will my specific vote for this bill, at this exact moment, produce more happiness than voting against it?
  2. What is my absolute duty as an elected official, independent of the consequences of this specific bill?
  3. What general rule concerning taxation and social welfare, if consistently followed by all policymakers, would yield the greatest overall good for society? (correct answer)
  4. Does this bill align with my personal moral convictions and the expressed values of my constituents?
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by first identifying the optimal rule and then seeing if the action conforms to it. Therefore, the first step is to deliberate about the best general rule that should govern the situation (e.g., rules about progressive taxation, social safety nets, etc.). (A) represents the act utilitarian's primary question, focusing on the specific act of voting. (B) represents deontological reasoning. (D) represents a different kind of political or personal reasoning, not a utilitarian one.

Question 11

An act utilitarian and a rule utilitarian observe a person donating a large sum of money to a highly effective charity. Both conclude that the donation was the morally right action. Which statement most accurately describes the potential difference in their justification?

  1. The act utilitarian praises the act's positive consequences, while the rule utilitarian praises the agent's virtuous and charitable character.
  2. The act utilitarian's justification is that this specific donation produced more utility than any other use of the money, while the rule utilitarian's is that the act conforms to an optimal rule like 'Donate surplus wealth to effective charities.' (correct answer)
  3. The act utilitarian can only approve of the action if it was done with the intention of maximizing happiness, while the rule utilitarian is only concerned with the conformity of the act to a rule.
  4. There can be no difference in their justification; if they agree on the moral status of the act, their underlying reasons must be identical by definition.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. This highlights that even when AU and RU agree on the outcome, their underlying reasoning differs. The AU's justification is direct: the specific act produced the best results. The RU's justification is indirect: the act is right because it complies with a rule ('assist those in need,' 'donate surplus wealth') whose general observance produces the best results. (A) incorrectly introduces virtue ethics into the RU's justification. (C) is incorrect as both forms of utilitarianism are primarily concerned with consequences, not the agent's intentions. (D) is false, as it ignores the core distinction between the two theories.

Question 12

Consider the rule: 'Never punish a person you know to be innocent.' Why would a rule utilitarian be more likely than an act utilitarian to endorse this rule as an absolute, exceptionless moral requirement?

  1. Because an act utilitarian would be forced to punish an innocent person if doing so in a specific case produced the best consequences, such as to prevent a large-scale riot. (correct answer)
  2. Because rule utilitarians believe in retributive justice, which forbids punishing the innocent, while act utilitarians are only concerned with deterrence.
  3. Because act utilitarians, in principle, do not believe in rules of any kind, even as helpful guides for action or social policy.
  4. Because the act of punishing an innocent person is always, in every conceivable situation, the act that produces the most disutility.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. This gets to the heart of why RU is seen as a potential improvement over AU. AU is vulnerable to scenarios where framing an innocent person demonstrably leads to the best outcome in a specific instance. The RU can avoid this counterintuitive result by arguing that a rule allowing for the punishment of the innocent would be catastrophic for public trust in the justice system, and therefore the rule 'never punish the innocent' is a utility-maximizing rule, which must be followed even in cases where it appears to lead to a worse outcome. (B) is incorrect as both theories justify punishment on consequentialist grounds. (C) is incorrect as AUs can use rules of thumb. (D) is incorrect because it is not a necessary truth; one can conceive of situations where it might not be true, which is exactly the issue AU faces.

Question 13

Some philosophers have proposed 'two-level' utilitarianism, which suggests that we should typically use intuitive, rule-based thinking (Level 1) in our everyday lives, but use critical, act-utilitarian calculation (Level 2) when rules conflict or in unusually high-stakes situations. This two-level theory is best understood as:

  1. ...a sophisticated version of act utilitarianism that uses rules of thumb for practical decision-making. (correct answer)
  2. ...a version of rule utilitarianism that allows for a limited number of specified exceptions in its rules.
  3. ...a hybrid theory that is exactly halfway between act and rule utilitarianism with no final arbiter.
  4. ...a rejection of both act and rule utilitarianism in favor of a new deontological framework.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. In a two-level theory like R.M. Hare's, the ultimate criterion of rightness for an action is the act-utilitarian principle (Level 2). The rules at Level 1 are selected because following them will, in most cases, lead people to perform the utility-maximizing act. They are essentially highly reliable rules of thumb. The theory is ultimately a form of act utilitarianism because the AU principle is the final court of appeal and the standard that justifies the Level 1 rules. (B) is incorrect because in RU, the rule itself is the standard of rightness, not a lower level of thinking. (C) is incorrect because there is a final arbiter: the Level 2 AU principle. (D) is incorrect because the theory is thoroughly consequentialist.

Question 14

The act utilitarian might reason: 'In this specific case, breaking my promise to meet a friend for lunch in order to help an accident victim on the roadside will clearly produce more overall happiness. The victim's need is great, my friend's disappointment is minor.' The rule utilitarian might arrive at the same conclusion—that one should help the victim—but their reasoning would differ significantly.

Based on the passage, which of the following best articulates the rule utilitarian's reasoning for helping the victim?

  1. The rule utilitarian would determine that the immediate happiness of the accident victim is the only morally relevant factor in this specific situation.
  2. The rule utilitarian would reason from a general rule 'Keep your promises,' but recognize that this rule is overridden by the immediate need to maximize utility in this emergency.
  3. The rule utilitarian would argue that the optimal set of moral rules for a society includes a rule of mutual aid in emergencies, and this rule takes precedence over a general rule about promise-keeping in this context. (correct answer)
  4. The rule utilitarian would conclude that helping is the right action because it aligns with the virtuous character trait of compassion, which generally promotes utility.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. It captures the sophisticated reasoning of a rule utilitarian, which involves justifying an action based on its conformity to the best set of rules, which may include rules about how to handle conflicts between other rules (e.g., aid in emergencies trumps promise-keeping). (A) describes act-utilitarian reasoning. (B) is plausible but less precise; it sounds like the agent is breaking the rule to maximize utility, which verges on the 'collapse' objection. The RU's justification is that the action conforms to a better, more nuanced rule or set of rules. (D) introduces reasoning from virtue ethics, which is a different moral framework.

Question 15

Consider two moral theories. Theory X states that an action is right if it conforms to a set of rules that have been accepted by a majority of people in a society. Theory Y states that an action is right if it conforms to the set of rules which, if universally followed, would produce the greatest good. Which statement correctly classifies these theories?

  1. Theory X is rule utilitarianism, and Theory Y is act utilitarianism.
  2. Theory X is a form of social contract theory, while Theory Y is rule utilitarianism. (correct answer)
  3. Both Theory X and Theory Y are different but equally valid versions of rule utilitarianism.
  4. Theory X is act utilitarianism, and Theory Y is a form of deontology.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Theory Y is a textbook definition of rule utilitarianism, as its justification for rules is their utility-maximizing consequence. Theory X, however, justifies rules based on agreement or acceptance by a group, which is characteristic of social contract theory, not rule utilitarianism. The key distinction is the criterion for what makes a rule valid: utility (RU) versus agreement (social contract). (A), (C), and (D) all mischaracterize one or both theories.

Question 16

A key structural difference between act utilitarianism (AU) and rule utilitarianism (RU) is that:

  1. AU is a single-level theory where the principle of utility is applied directly to acts, while RU is a two-level theory where utility justifies rules, and rules then justify acts. (correct answer)
  2. AU assesses the morality of acts based on their actual consequences, while RU assesses acts based on their expected consequences.
  3. AU is a consequentialist theory, while RU is a deontological theory because it involves following rules.
  4. AU is primarily concerned with maximizing happiness, while RU is primarily concerned with minimizing suffering.
Explanation: The correct answer is A. This describes the core structural distinction. In act utilitarianism, there is one level of moral evaluation: the principle of utility is applied directly to individual actions. In rule utilitarianism, there are two levels: the principle of utility is first used to select a set of optimal rules, and then individual actions are judged based on their conformity to those rules. It is a form of indirect consequentialism. (B) is incorrect because both theories can be formulated in terms of either actual or expected consequences. (C) is a common misconception; RU is still a form of consequentialism because the rules are justified by their consequences. (D) is incorrect as both theories generally aim to maximize net utility.

Question 17

A philosopher proposes a version of rule utilitarianism where the moral code does not aim to maximize utility, but rather to ensure that if everyone followed it, utility would be at a certain high, 'sufficient' level. How does this proposal relate to standard act and rule utilitarianism?

  1. It is identical to standard rule utilitarianism, as ensuring a high level of utility is functionally the same as maximizing it.
  2. It is a form of act utilitarianism because it allows for flexibility in achieving the utility target rather than adhering to rigid rules.
  3. It is a departure from both standard forms, as it replaces the 'maximizing' demand of classical utilitarianism with a 'satisficing' or 'sufficientarian' one. (correct answer)
  4. It is equivalent to the 'collapse' version of rule utilitarianism, where every act is judged by its own immediate utility.
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Standard (or classical) utilitarianism, in both its act and rule forms, is a maximizing theory. It demands choosing the act or rule that produces the most good possible. This proposal changes that core requirement to one of achieving a 'good enough' or 'sufficient' level of utility. This is known as a 'satisficing' or 'sufficientarian' approach, which is a significant departure from the classical framework. (A) is incorrect because 'sufficient' and 'maximal' are conceptually distinct. (B) and (D) are incorrect because the theory remains rule-based, not act-based.

Question 18

A politician is considering voting for a bill that would slightly inconvenience 99% of the population to provide a crucial social program for the poorest 1%. The total utility calculation is complex, and it is unclear whether the bill would produce a net positive. Which question best represents the initial step in a rule utilitarian's deliberation process?

  1. Will my specific vote for this bill, at this exact moment, produce more happiness than voting against it?
  2. What is my absolute duty as an elected official, independent of the consequences of this specific bill?
  3. What general rule concerning taxation and social welfare, if consistently followed by all policymakers, would yield the greatest overall good for society? (correct answer)
  4. Does this bill align with my personal moral convictions and the expressed values of my constituents?
Explanation: The correct answer is C. Rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by first identifying the optimal rule and then seeing if the action conforms to it. Therefore, the first step is to deliberate about the best general rule that should govern the situation (e.g., rules about progressive taxation, social safety nets, etc.). (A) represents the act utilitarian's primary question, focusing on the specific act of voting. (B) represents deontological reasoning. (D) represents a different kind of political or personal reasoning, not a utilitarian one.

Question 19

An act utilitarian and a rule utilitarian observe a person donating a large sum of money to a highly effective charity. Both conclude that the donation was the morally right action. Which statement most accurately describes the potential difference in their justification?

  1. The act utilitarian praises the act's positive consequences, while the rule utilitarian praises the agent's virtuous and charitable character.
  2. The act utilitarian's justification is that this specific donation produced more utility than any other use of the money, while the rule utilitarian's is that the act conforms to an optimal rule like 'Donate surplus wealth to effective charities.' (correct answer)
  3. The act utilitarian can only approve of the action if it was done with the intention of maximizing happiness, while the rule utilitarian is only concerned with the conformity of the act to a rule.
  4. There can be no difference in their justification; if they agree on the moral status of the act, their underlying reasons must be identical by definition.
Explanation: The correct answer is B. This highlights that even when AU and RU agree on the outcome, their underlying reasoning differs. The AU's justification is direct: the specific act produced the best results. The RU's justification is indirect: the act is right because it complies with a rule ('assist those in need,' 'donate surplus wealth') whose general observance produces the best results. (A) incorrectly introduces virtue ethics into the RU's justification. (C) is incorrect as both forms of utilitarianism are primarily concerned with consequences, not the agent's intentions. (D) is false, as it ignores the core distinction between the two theories.

Question 20

Philosopher A: 'The rightness of an action depends on its adherence to a code of rules. We must first ask what code, if it were taught and its currency in society were protected, would have the best consequences. Then, we can assess individual actions by reference to that code.'

Philosopher B: 'No, that is a mistake. Rules are useful summaries of past experience. But in any given choice, the right action is the one that will actually produce the best results. To follow a rule when you know breaking it would be better is to worship the rule, not the good.'

The views expressed by Philosopher A and Philosopher B correspond, respectively, to:

  1. Deontology and Act Utilitarianism
  2. Rule Utilitarianism and Act Utilitarianism (correct answer)
  3. Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism
  4. Virtue Ethics and Deontology
Explanation: The correct answer is B. Philosopher A provides a clear and accurate description of rule utilitarianism: actions are judged by their conformity to a set of rules, and the rules themselves are judged by the consequences of their general adoption. Philosopher B articulates the core principle of act utilitarianism: the right act is the one that produces the best results in that specific situation. Philosopher B's final sentence is a classic act-utilitarian critique of rule utilitarianism, often called the 'rule worship' objection. (A) is incorrect because Philosopher A's justification for the rules is consequentialist. (C) reverses the order. (D) misidentifies both positions.