Microbiology Quiz: Healthcare Associated Infections

20 questions · exam conditions

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Healthcare Associated InfectionsQuestion 1 of 20

A patient with a history of intravenous drug use is admitted with fever and a new heart murmur. Blood cultures grow methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The patient is diagnosed with infective endocarditis and placed on contact precautions. What is the primary rationale for implementing contact precautions for this patient?

To prevent airborne transmission of MRSA to healthcare workers and other patients.

To contain the patient's respiratory secretions that may be aerosolized during coughing.

To prevent transmission via direct or indirect contact with the patient or their environment.

To protect the immunocompromised patient from acquiring additional infections.

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Microbiology Quiz

Microbiology Quiz: Healthcare Associated Infections

Practice Healthcare Associated Infections in Microbiology with focused quiz questions that help you check what you know, review explanations, and build confidence with test-style prompts.

What this quiz covers

This quiz focuses on Healthcare Associated Infections, giving you a quick way to practice the rules, question types, and explanations that matter most for Microbiology.

How to use this quiz

Try each quiz question before looking at the correct answer. Use the explanations to review missed ideas, then come back to similar questions until the pattern feels familiar.

All questions

Question 1

To prevent airborne transmission of MRSA to healthcare workers and other patients.
To contain the patient's respiratory secretions that may be aerosolized during coughing.
To prevent transmission via direct or indirect contact with the patient or their environment. (correct answer)
To protect the immunocompromised patient from acquiring additional infections.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Although the patient's primary infection is in the bloodstream (endocarditis), MRSA can colonize various body sites, such as the nares, skin, or wounds. Contact precautions (gowns and gloves) are implemented to prevent the spread of the organism to other patients via the hands of healthcare workers or contaminated equipment and surfaces. The patient's diagnosis of endocarditis does not change the transmission route of MRSA itself. A and B are incorrect because MRSA is not transmitted via the airborne or droplet route, except in rare cases of severe MRSA pneumonia, which is not indicated here. D describes protective isolation, which is used for highly immunocompromised patients, not for source control of an MDRO.

Question 2

A hospital admits a patient from a long-term acute care facility who is known to be colonized with Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE). The patient is placed on contact precautions in a private room. Which of the following additional strategies is a key component of the CDC's guidance for preventing the transmission of CRE in acute care settings?

Cohorting CRE-colonized patients with dedicated nursing staff, if possible. (correct answer)
Initiating decolonization therapy with oral non-absorbable antibiotics.
Screening all healthcare workers on the unit for CRE colonization.
Requiring all visitors to wear N95 respirators when in the patient's room.

Explanation: When you encounter questions about multidrug-resistant organisms like CRE, think systematically about infection control strategies that address both isolation and transmission prevention in healthcare settings. The CDC's comprehensive approach to CRE prevention emphasizes aggressive contact precautions combined with cohorting strategies. Option A is correct because cohorting CRE-colonized patients together with dedicated nursing staff creates an additional barrier to transmission. This strategy minimizes the number of healthcare workers exposed to CRE and reduces the risk of cross-contamination between CRE patients and non-colonized patients. When combined with proper hand hygiene and contact precautions, cohorting significantly enhances containment efforts. Option B is incorrect because decolonization therapy is not recommended for CRE. Unlike some other resistant organisms, effective decolonization protocols for CRE haven't been established, and inappropriate antibiotic use could worsen resistance patterns. Option C misunderstands transmission dynamics. CRE spreads patient-to-patient via contaminated hands and equipment, not through healthcare worker colonization. Screening staff isn't part of standard CRE control measures and wouldn't be cost-effective. Option D represents a fundamental error in understanding CRE transmission. Since CRE spreads through contact, not airborne routes, N95 respirators provide no benefit. Standard surgical masks (if any face protection is needed) combined with proper hand hygiene and gowning are sufficient. Remember: CRE control focuses on contact precautions, environmental cleaning, and administrative strategies like cohorting. Don't confuse CRE protocols with airborne precautions used for tuberculosis or other respiratory pathogens.

Question 3

To prevent airborne transmission of MRSA to healthcare workers and other patients.
To contain the patient's respiratory secretions that may be aerosolized during coughing.
To prevent transmission via direct or indirect contact with the patient or their environment. (correct answer)
To protect the immunocompromised patient from acquiring additional infections.

Question 4

An outbreak of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE) is identified on a hematology-oncology unit. Active surveillance cultures (rectal swabs) are implemented for all patients on the unit. A patient with no signs of infection has a positive surveillance culture for VRE. What is the most appropriate immediate infection control action?

Implement contact precautions, including the use of gowns and gloves for all entries into the room. (correct answer)
Place the patient in a private room under strict airborne isolation.
Initiate empiric intravenous linezolid to decolonize the patient.
Discharge the patient from the hospital as soon as medically stable to reduce the reservoir.

Explanation: When you encounter infection control questions involving multidrug-resistant organisms like VRE, focus on the principles of transmission prevention and appropriate isolation measures based on how the pathogen spreads. VRE spreads primarily through direct contact with contaminated surfaces, equipment, or healthcare workers' hands. Since this patient has tested positive for VRE colonization (even without active infection), they pose a transmission risk to other vulnerable patients on the hematology-oncology unit. Contact precautions with gowns and gloves (Answer A) are the standard infection control measure for VRE because they create a barrier that prevents transmission via touch and contaminated clothing. Answer B is incorrect because VRE doesn't spread through airborne transmission—it spreads through contact. Airborne isolation is reserved for pathogens like tuberculosis or measles that travel through respiratory droplets. Answer C is wrong because empiric antibiotic treatment for colonization (not infection) is inappropriate and would promote further antibiotic resistance. Linezolid should only be used when treating actual VRE infections, not asymptomatic colonization. Answer D is incorrect because early discharge doesn't address the immediate infection control need and could potentially spread VRE to other healthcare facilities or the community. The patient requires proper isolation measures regardless of location. Study tip: For infection control questions, always match the precaution type to the transmission method. Contact precautions = direct/indirect contact transmission (like VRE, MRSA, C. diff). Remember that colonization still requires isolation measures to protect other patients.

Question 5

A hospital experiences a cluster of catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) caused by a multidrug-resistant strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae in its long-term care ward. An investigation finds that all affected patients had their urinary catheters inserted in the emergency department (ED) several weeks prior. Which infection control measure should be prioritized to prevent future occurrences?

Auditing and reinforcing aseptic technique during catheter insertion in the ED. (correct answer)
Placing all patients with urinary catheters on empiric antibiotic therapy.
Implementing routine surveillance cultures of all patients admitted from the ED.
Switching the brand of urinary catheter used throughout the hospital.

Explanation: When you encounter healthcare-associated infection outbreaks, focus on identifying the most likely point of contamination and implementing targeted prevention measures. This cluster involves CAUTIs from multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, with all affected patients having catheters inserted in the same location (the ED) weeks before infection onset. The correct answer is A because the common factor linking all cases is catheter insertion in the ED. Since Klebsiella can establish biofilms on catheter surfaces during insertion, poor aseptic technique likely introduced the organism at the time of placement. The weeks-long delay before symptoms appeared is consistent with slow biofilm development and bacterial proliferation. Auditing and reinforcing proper sterile insertion technique addresses the root cause. Option B is wrong because empiric antibiotics for all catheterized patients promotes further antibiotic resistance and doesn't prevent initial contamination during insertion. Option C misses the point—surveillance cultures won't prevent infections and the problem isn't with ED patients generally, but specifically with catheter insertion practices. Option D incorrectly assumes a defective catheter product, but the issue is procedural contamination during insertion, not the catheter material itself. For infection control questions, always trace back to find the common source or procedure linking cases. The timing, location, and affected population usually point to a specific breakdown in protocol. Focus on interventions that address the root cause of contamination rather than downstream management approaches.

Question 6

A patient in the ICU who has been mechanically ventilated for 10 days develops a fever, leukocytosis, and new purulent sputum. A chest X-ray shows a new infiltrate. The clinical team suspects ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). The hospital's VAP prevention bundle includes elevating the head of the bed, oral care with chlorhexidine, and daily sedation vacations. What is the primary microbiological rationale for performing oral care with chlorhexidine?

To prevent hematogenous spread of oral bacteria to the lungs.
To reduce the overall burden of oropharyngeal bacteria that could be aspirated. (correct answer)
To treat gingivitis caused by the pressure of the endotracheal tube.
To neutralize gastric acid that may be refluxed into the oropharynx.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The pathogenesis of VAP often involves the aspiration of secretions from the oropharynx that have become colonized with pathogenic bacteria. Intubated patients are at high risk for aspiration. Oral care with an antiseptic like chlorhexidine is performed to reduce the concentration of pathogenic microorganisms in the oropharynx, thereby decreasing the bacterial load that might be aspirated into the lower respiratory tract. A is incorrect because the primary route of entry to the lungs in VAP is aspiration, not bloodstream spread. C is a potential secondary benefit but not the primary reason for preventing pneumonia. D is incorrect as chlorhexidine is an antiseptic and has no effect on gastric acid.

Question 7

A hospital's infection prevention program uses the Standardized Infection Ratio (SIR) to track its performance in preventing central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs). For the most recent quarter, the hospital's SIR for CLABSI was calculated to be 0.75 (95% CI: 0.60 - 0.92). How should this result be interpreted?

The hospital had 25% fewer CLABSIs than the average hospital in its peer group.
The hospital's CLABSI rate is statistically significantly lower than the national baseline rate. (correct answer)
The hospital observed 0.75 CLABSIs per 1,000 central line days during the reporting period.
There is a 75% probability that the hospital's infection control measures are effective.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. The SIR compares the observed number of infections to the predicted number based on a national baseline. An SIR of 1.0 means the hospital had the same number of infections as predicted. An SIR less than 1.0 means the hospital had fewer infections than predicted. Since the 95% confidence interval (0.60 - 0.92) for the SIR of 0.75 does not include 1.0, the result is statistically significant. This means we can be confident that the hospital's lower infection rate is not due to random chance. A is a misinterpretation; it means 25% fewer infections than predicted, not necessarily an average hospital. C confuses the SIR, a ratio, with a raw infection rate. D misinterprets the SIR value as a probability statement about effectiveness.

Question 8

A patient with a long-term central venous catheter for chemotherapy develops a fever and chills. Blood cultures drawn from the catheter and a peripheral vein both grow Candida albicans. Despite appropriate antifungal therapy based on susceptibility testing, the patient remains febrile with positive blood cultures. What is the most likely reason for the persistent candidemia?

The central venous catheter is colonized with a Candida biofilm that is seeding the bloodstream. (correct answer)
The Candida albicans strain has rapidly developed resistance to the antifungal agent.
The patient has developed a secondary bacterial infection that is not being treated.
The antifungal medication is being administered at a sub-therapeutic dose.

Explanation: When you encounter a question about persistent fungal infection despite appropriate therapy in a patient with indwelling medical devices, think about biofilm formation—one of the most important concepts in device-related infections. Biofilms are structured communities of microorganisms encased in a protective matrix that adheres to surfaces, especially medical devices like catheters. Candida species are notorious biofilm producers, and once established, these biofilms create a persistent source of infection that continuously seeds the bloodstream with fungal cells. The biofilm matrix acts as a barrier, making antifungal agents significantly less effective—sometimes requiring concentrations 100-1000 times higher than normal to penetrate and kill the organisms within. This explains why the patient remains febrile with positive blood cultures despite receiving appropriate antifungal therapy based on standard susceptibility testing. Answer A correctly identifies this biofilm-mediated catheter colonization. Answer B is incorrect because Candida albicans rarely develops rapid resistance during treatment, and resistance typically emerges over weeks to months, not during acute therapy. Answer C doesn't fit because both blood culture sites grew the same organism (Candida), not bacteria, and the patient's symptoms are consistent with ongoing candidemia. Answer D is unlikely since the question states the therapy is "appropriate" and based on susceptibility testing, implying correct dosing. Remember this key principle: when you see persistent fungal or bacterial infections in patients with indwelling devices despite appropriate antimicrobial therapy, always consider biofilm formation as the primary culprit requiring device removal for cure.

Question 9

A patient is admitted with a high fever, cough, and shortness of breath. A chest X-ray is consistent with pneumonia. The patient recently traveled to a region with a known outbreak of MERS-CoV. Given the suspicion of this pathogen, what is the minimum set of transmission-based precautions that should be implemented pending a definitive diagnosis?

Standard precautions plus contact precautions.
Standard precautions plus droplet precautions.
Standard precautions plus airborne precautions.
Standard, contact, and airborne precautions plus eye protection. (correct answer)

Explanation: The correct answer is D. MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus) is known to be transmitted through multiple routes, including contact and droplets. However, because aerosol-generating procedures are common in the care of patients with severe respiratory illness and airborne transmission has not been definitively ruled out in all settings, the CDC recommends a comprehensive approach. This includes standard precautions, contact precautions (gown and gloves), and airborne precautions (N95 respirator or equivalent) in an airborne infection isolation room (AIIR). Eye protection (goggles or face shield) is also explicitly recommended. The other options are insufficient as they omit one or more of the recommended precautions for a pathogen with this level of uncertainty and severity.

Question 10

An infection preventionist is reviewing data on surgical site infections (SSIs) following colon resection surgeries. The data show that the rate of SSIs caused by anaerobic bacteria like Bacteroides fragilis is higher than benchmark rates. All other quality metrics, including instrument sterilization and operating room ventilation, are within normal limits. Which of the following interventions is most likely to reduce the rate of these specific SSIs?

Improving the preoperative skin preparation with a chlorhexidine-based agent.
Implementing a policy for all surgical staff to wear N95 respirators during procedures.
Enhancing the terminal cleaning protocols for the operating rooms.
Ensuring the timely and appropriate administration of preoperative prophylactic antibiotics. (correct answer)

Explanation: When analyzing surgical site infections (SSIs), you need to match the intervention to the specific source and type of pathogen involved. Bacteroides fragilis is part of the normal colonic flora, so SSIs from this organism following colon resection typically result from endogenous contamination during the procedure itself. The correct answer is D because Bacteroides fragilis is an anaerobic gram-negative bacterium that requires specific antibiotic coverage. Standard prophylactic regimens must include agents effective against anaerobes (like metronidazole or clindamycin) in addition to coverage for gram-positive and gram-negative aerobes. If SSI rates from B. fragilis are elevated while other quality metrics are normal, the most likely issue is inadequate anaerobic coverage in the prophylactic antibiotic regimen. Answer A is incorrect because improved skin preparation won't address endogenous colonic flora that's released when the bowel is opened during surgery. Answer B is wrong because N95 respirators protect against airborne transmission, but B. fragilis SSIs come from the patient's own intestinal contents, not environmental sources. Answer C is flawed because enhanced terminal cleaning addresses environmental contamination, but again, these infections originate from the patient's endogenous flora during the procedure. Remember this pattern: when you see SSIs caused by organisms that are normal flora of the surgical site (like anaerobes in bowel surgery), think about whether prophylactic antibiotics provide appropriate coverage for those specific organisms rather than looking at external contamination sources.

Question 11

A hospital's infection control team is evaluating the reprocessing protocol for its flexible fiber-optic bronchoscopes. According to the Spaulding classification system, these devices are considered semi-critical. After thorough manual cleaning, which of the following is the most appropriate next step for reprocessing these bronchoscopes?

Sterilization using a steam autoclave at 121°C for 30 minutes.
High-level disinfection using a chemical agent like glutaraldehyde or peracetic acid. (correct answer)
Intermediate-level disinfection with a 70% isopropyl alcohol wipe-down.
Low-level disinfection with a quaternary ammonium compound solution.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. Flexible bronchoscopes are semi-critical devices because they contact mucous membranes but do not typically penetrate sterile body tissues. The standard of care for semi-critical items is high-level disinfection (HLD), which eliminates all microorganisms except for high numbers of bacterial spores. Agents like glutaraldehyde are commonly used for this purpose. A is incorrect because the heat and pressure of steam autoclaving would damage the delicate fiber-optic components of the bronchoscope. C and D are incorrect because intermediate and low-level disinfection are insufficient for devices that contact mucous membranes and would not reliably eliminate potential pathogens like mycobacteria or non-enveloped viruses.

Question 12

A surgical team is preparing for a total knee arthroplasty. The orthopedic implants are packaged and have been processed in a steam autoclave. The chemical indicator tape on the outside of the package has changed color. However, a biological indicator vial containing Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores from the same load is incubated and shows no growth after 48 hours. How should this sterilization cycle and its contents be interpreted?

The cycle failed because the chemical indicator changed color too quickly.
The cycle was successful, and the implants are sterile and safe for use. (correct answer)
The cycle was successful, but the biological indicator is invalid and should be repeated.
The cycle failed because the biological indicator spores should have shown growth.

Explanation: The correct answer is B. Sterilization success is determined by multiple indicators. The chemical indicator provides an immediate indication that the package was exposed to the physical conditions of sterilization (e.g., heat). The biological indicator (BI) is the gold standard for verifying sterility. Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores are highly resistant to heat; their killing confirms the effectiveness of the steam sterilization process. No growth in the BI vial indicates that the spores were successfully killed, and therefore, the cycle was effective and the contents are sterile. A is incorrect; a color change is expected in a successful cycle. C is incorrect as there is no reason to assume the BI is invalid. D is a fundamental misunderstanding; growth of the BI spores indicates a sterilization failure.

Question 13

A hospital's infection control committee notices a sudden 50% increase in the reported incidence of hospital-onset C. difficile infections (HO-CDI). The investigation finds no changes in antibiotic prescribing patterns, hand hygiene compliance, or cleaning protocols. However, it is discovered that three months ago, the clinical laboratory switched its testing method from a single-step toxin A/B enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to a more sensitive two-step algorithm using a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT). What is the most likely explanation for the observed increase in HO-CDI rates?

A new, more virulent strain of C. difficile has been introduced into the hospital.
Antimicrobial stewardship efforts have failed, leading to increased patient susceptibility.
There has been a genuine breakdown in environmental cleaning practices that was not detected.
The increased rate is a surveillance artifact due to the use of a more sensitive diagnostic test. (correct answer)

Explanation: When you encounter questions about sudden changes in healthcare-associated infection rates, always consider whether the increase reflects a true epidemiological change or a surveillance artifact from altered detection methods. The key insight here is understanding how diagnostic sensitivity affects case detection. The laboratory switched from a single-step toxin A/B enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to a two-step algorithm using nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT). NAAT is significantly more sensitive than EIA, meaning it can detect C. difficile toxin genes even when toxin levels are below the EIA detection threshold. This increased sensitivity inevitably captures cases that would have been missed by the less sensitive method, creating an apparent 50% increase in HO-CDI rates without any actual change in disease incidence. Option A is incorrect because a new virulent strain would likely be accompanied by changes in clinical severity or other epidemiological patterns beyond just case numbers. Option B fails because the scenario explicitly states that antibiotic prescribing patterns remained unchanged, making failed stewardship unlikely. Option C is wrong since cleaning protocols were verified as unchanged, and a genuine breakdown would typically show other indicators of environmental contamination. The correct answer is D because this represents a classic surveillance artifact—the observed increase results from enhanced case detection capability rather than increased disease occurrence. Remember for microbiology exams: when infection rates suddenly change without corresponding changes in risk factors, always consider whether diagnostic method changes could explain the apparent increase. More sensitive tests will always identify more cases.

Question 14

A patient is admitted to the hospital with community-acquired pneumonia. On day 7 of hospitalization, they develop watery diarrhea. A stool sample is positive for Clostridioides difficile toxin via a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT). The patient's room is subjected to terminal cleaning upon discharge. Which of the following is the most critical component of this cleaning process to prevent transmission to the next patient?

Using an alcohol-based sanitizer on all high-touch surfaces to rapidly kill vegetative bacteria.
Wiping down surfaces with a quaternary ammonium compound-based disinfectant.
Scrubbing the room with soap and water followed by air drying to remove organic material.
Applying a sporicidal agent, such as a 10% bleach solution, to all surfaces and equipment. (correct answer)

Explanation: The correct answer is D. Clostridioides difficile produces endospores that are highly resistant to standard disinfectants and can persist in the environment for months. Alcohol-based sanitizers and quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) are not sporicidal and are ineffective against C. difficile spores. Therefore, the most critical step is the use of a sporicidal disinfectant, such as bleach (sodium hypochlorite), to effectively inactivate the spores and prevent environmental transmission. A and B are incorrect because these agents are not sporicidal. C is incorrect because while cleaning to remove organic material is important, it is insufficient without a subsequent sporicidal disinfection step.

Question 15

An intensive care unit (ICU) experiences an increase in bloodstream infections caused by Acinetobacter baumannii. An investigation reveals that all isolates share an identical, novel carbapenem-resistance profile. Environmental cultures from sinks, bedrails, and ventilator equipment are negative. The infection preventionist observes healthcare worker practices and notes inconsistent glove use but excellent hand hygiene with alcohol-based rubs. Which of the following is the most likely mode of transmission contributing to this outbreak?

Contaminated respiratory therapy equipment serving as a common source reservoir.
Airborne dissemination of the organism from a single colonized patient.
Transient contamination of healthcare workers' hands, with transmission between patients. (correct answer)
Colonization of the hospital water system, leading to patient exposure during bathing.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. Despite good hand hygiene with alcohol-based rubs, inconsistent glove use can lead to the contamination of hands and subsequent transmission. Acinetobacter baumannii is known for its persistence on surfaces and skin. Even with effective hand hygiene, repeated environmental contact due to lack of gloves can re-contaminate hands between moments of hygiene, facilitating transmission. This represents a subtle breakdown in contact precautions. A is incorrect because environmental cultures of the equipment were negative. B is incorrect as A. baumannii is primarily transmitted by contact, not airborne routes. D is incorrect because the hospital water system is a more common reservoir for organisms like Legionella or Pseudomonas, and environmental cultures were negative.

Question 16

Using an alcohol-based sanitizer on all high-touch surfaces to rapidly kill vegetative bacteria.
Wiping down surfaces with a quaternary ammonium compound-based disinfectant.
Scrubbing the room with soap and water followed by air drying to remove organic material.
Applying a sporicidal agent, such as a 10% bleach solution, to all surfaces and equipment. (correct answer)

Question 17

Sterilization using a steam autoclave at 121°C for 30 minutes.
High-level disinfection using a chemical agent like glutaraldehyde or peracetic acid. (correct answer)
Intermediate-level disinfection with a 70% isopropyl alcohol wipe-down.
Low-level disinfection with a quaternary ammonium compound solution.

Question 18

To prevent hematogenous spread of oral bacteria to the lungs.
To reduce the overall burden of oropharyngeal bacteria that could be aspirated. (correct answer)
To treat gingivitis caused by the pressure of the endotracheal tube.
To neutralize gastric acid that may be refluxed into the oropharynx.

Question 19

As part of an antimicrobial stewardship program, a hospital microbiology lab implements reflex testing for C. difficile. The new protocol is a two-step algorithm: first, a glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) antigen test, and if positive, a second test for toxin B by PCR. A patient's stool sample is GDH positive but PCR negative. How should the infection preventionist interpret this result?

The patient has active C. difficile infection and requires immediate treatment and isolation.
The test is a false positive; the patient does not have C. difficile organisms present.
The patient is likely colonized with a non-toxigenic strain of C. difficile. (correct answer)
The patient was recently treated for C. difficile, and the PCR is detecting residual, non-viable DNA.

Explanation: The correct answer is C. The GDH test is a sensitive screening test that detects an antigen common to all C. difficile strains, both toxigenic and non-toxigenic. The PCR test specifically detects the gene for toxin B, which is responsible for the disease. A result that is GDH positive but toxin PCR negative indicates that C. difficile organisms are present (colonization) but they lack the gene to produce the toxin that causes colitis. Therefore, the patient is colonized, not infected. A is incorrect because there is no evidence of toxin production. B is incorrect because the positive GDH indicates the organism is present. D is possible but less likely than colonization with a non-toxigenic strain, and PCR detects DNA, not its viability.

Question 20

Auditing and reinforcing aseptic technique during catheter insertion in the ED. (correct answer)
Placing all patients with urinary catheters on empiric antibiotic therapy.
Implementing routine surveillance cultures of all patients admitted from the ED.
Switching the brand of urinary catheter used throughout the hospital.