All flashcards
Flashcard 1: Which option best describes a bidirectional causal relationship between two variables?
Answer: Each variable influences the other in a feedback loop. Mutual influence creates a cycle where each factor affects and is affected by the other.
Flashcard 2: What is a necessary cause (necessary condition) in cause-and-effect reasoning?
Answer: A factor that must be present for the effect to occur. Without this factor, the effect cannot happen, establishing it as a prerequisite in causal logic.
Flashcard 3: What is a sufficient cause (sufficient condition) in cause-and-effect reasoning?
Answer: A factor that, if present, guarantees the effect occurs. Its presence alone ensures the effect, distinguishing it from factors that merely contribute.
Flashcard 4: Which option best describes a contributing cause in an argument?
Answer: A factor that increases likelihood or magnitude of an effect. It enhances the probability or intensity of the outcome but is not solely responsible.
Flashcard 5: What is a confounder in a causal claim?
Answer: A third variable causing both the presumed cause and effect. This external factor creates a spurious link by independently influencing both variables.
Flashcard 6: What is reverse causation in an argument that links two variables?
Answer: The alleged effect actually causes the alleged cause. It reverses the assumed direction, where the supposed outcome actually drives the presumed trigger.
Flashcard 7: What is the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy in causal reasoning?
Answer: Inferring causation solely because one event follows another. This fallacy assumes temporal sequence implies causality without further evidence.
Flashcard 8: What is the fallacy of confusing necessary and sufficient conditions?
Answer: Treating a necessary condition as sufficient, or vice versa. It errs by equating required conditions with those adequate to produce the result.
Flashcard 9: What is a causal chain in an argument, and what does it imply?
Answer: A causes B causes C; intermediate steps mediate the final effect. This structure shows sequential causation, where initial events trigger subsequent ones leading to the end result.
Flashcard 10: What is a mediator variable in a causal explanation?
Answer: A variable through which the cause produces the effect. It serves as the intermediate mechanism explaining how the cause leads to the effect.
Flashcard 11: What is a moderator variable in a causal claim?
Answer: A variable that changes the strength or direction of an effect. It alters the causal relationship's strength or nature under different conditions.
Flashcard 12: What is the key evidence feature of a causal claim versus a descriptive claim?
Answer: Causal claims require a mechanism or ruling out alternatives. Unlike descriptive claims, causal ones need mechanisms or exclusion of confounders to substantiate the link.
Flashcard 13: What is the difference between correlation and causation in a CARS argument?
Answer: Correlation is association; causation is a producing relationship. Correlation merely shows variables covary, while causation requires evidence that one directly influences the other.