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LSAT Logical Reasoning

LSAT Logical Reasoning Practice Test: Practice Test 11

Practice Test 11 for LSAT Logical Reasoning: real questions and explanations from the Varsity Tutors practice-test pool.

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Question 1 of 25

A city planning office applies this principle when deciding whether a building qualifies for a historic-preservation tax credit: The credit should be granted only if (1) the building is at least 50 years old, and (2) the proposed renovations preserve the building’s original façade materials. If either condition is not met, the credit should be denied.

Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above?

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Question 1

A city planning office applies this principle when deciding whether a building qualifies for a historic-preservation tax credit: The credit should be granted only if (1) the building is at least 50 years old, and (2) the proposed renovations preserve the building’s original façade materials. If either condition is not met, the credit should be denied.

Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above?

  1. A 60-year-old building will keep its original façade materials during renovation; the office grants the tax credit. (correct answer)
  2. A 60-year-old building will replace its original façade materials with modern panels; the office grants the tax credit because the building is old enough.
  3. A 40-year-old building will keep its original façade materials; the office grants the tax credit because the renovation is preservation-minded.
  4. A 60-year-old building will keep its original façade materials; the office denies the credit because meeting both conditions is a reason to deny.
  5. The office evaluates whether to widen a nearby road, which does not concern a historic-preservation tax credit for a building.

Explanation: This historic preservation principle requires both sufficient age (50+ years) and façade material preservation for tax credit eligibility. The principle protects architectural heritage while providing financial incentives for appropriate renovations. Choice A satisfies both conditions: the 60-year-old building meets the age requirement and will preserve original façade materials during renovation. Choice C fails because the 40-year-old building doesn't meet the minimum age requirement, regardless of preservation-minded renovation plans. When applying historic preservation principles, verify both temporal eligibility and substantive preservation standards—good intentions about maintaining character cannot override explicit age requirements.

Question 2

In a recent internal survey, employees working remotely reported significantly higher job satisfaction than those working in the office. Based on this, the executive team concludes that expanding remote roles will increase employee satisfaction. The survey asked respondents to rate their satisfaction on a ten-point scale and was conducted during the rollout of several new benefits, including wellness reimbursements and stipends.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

  1. Some in-office employees prefer collaborating face-to-face.
  2. The survey did not ask about commute times.
  3. Remote employees also receive monthly stipends and flexible hours unavailable to in-office staff; in a similar survey at a sister company where all employees had these benefits regardless of location, satisfaction did not differ by location. (correct answer)
  4. Remote employees use different software tools than office employees.
  5. Many companies in other industries are shifting toward remote work.

Explanation: The argument assumes location causes higher satisfaction; C provides an alternative explanation (added benefits) and evidence that when those are controlled, the difference disappears. The other choices are irrelevant or too vague to undercut the causal claim. Thus, C most directly weakens the conclusion.

Question 3

A nonprofit director observes that when donors receive a personalized thank-you call within 48 hours, donor retention increases. The nonprofit began making such calls, and retention increased. Higher retention stabilizes revenue, and stable revenue allows the nonprofit to plan multi-year projects. Therefore, the thank-you calls will allow the nonprofit to plan multi-year projects.

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion of the argument to be properly drawn?

  1. If donor retention increases, then the nonprofit’s revenue becomes stable.
  2. If the nonprofit makes thank-you calls within 48 hours, then it will be able to plan multi-year projects. (correct answer)
  3. No other change in the nonprofit’s outreach occurred when retention increased.
  4. Only nonprofits that make thank-you calls can increase donor retention.
  5. Any nonprofit that plans multi-year projects must make thank-you calls within 48 hours.

Explanation: The argument concludes that the thank-you calls will allow the nonprofit to plan multi-year projects. The reasoning chain shows that prompt thank-you calls increase donor retention, the nonprofit implemented calls and retention increased, and higher retention stabilizes revenue and enables long-term planning. The gap is proving that making thank-you calls will actually enable multi-year project planning, not just that retention increased. The correct answer fills this gap by stating that if the nonprofit makes thank-you calls within 48 hours, then it will be able to plan multi-year projects. Choice A connects retention increases to revenue stability but doesn't establish that the specific outreach strategy will enable project planning. Sufficient assumptions must create a direct causal bridge from the implemented practice to the organizational capability.

Question 4

If a public health campaign is effective, vaccination rates rise within a year. In our city, vaccination rates rose sharply this year. The campaign's stated goal was to increase vaccinations within a year, and the health department set that as its benchmark for success. That benchmark has been met, which, the director argues, demonstrates the campaign worked as intended and should be renewed unchanged next year.

Which of the following most accurately describes the flaw in the argument?

  1. Takes the absence of disconfirming evidence as conclusive proof.
  2. Conflates a high probability with absolute certainty.
  3. Infers the antecedent of a conditional from its consequent. (correct answer)
  4. Draws a normative conclusion from purely descriptive premises.
  5. Claims causation merely on the basis of temporal sequence.

Explanation: The argument affirms the consequent: from 'if effective, then rates rise' and 'rates rose,' it concludes the campaign was effective. It does not simply rely on temporal order, an authority, or an is-ought leap. Nor does it confuse probability with certainty.

Question 5

Every rapidly growing firm in our sector maintains a strong research team. We just hired several top researchers and created a new research division. Therefore, our firm is sure to experience rapid growth next year. After all, without robust research capacity, no company can innovate fast enough to expand quickly. Investors should be reassured by this decisive step toward strengthening our core.

The argument's reasoning is flawed because it does which one of the following?

  1. Mistakes a necessary condition for rapid growth for a sufficient one. (correct answer)
  2. Infers that one event caused another merely because it preceded it.
  3. Takes absence of contrary evidence as positive proof.
  4. Draws an analogy between cases that are not relevantly similar.
  5. Concludes about a collective from premises about individuals.

Explanation: Having a strong research team may be necessary for rapid growth, but the argument assumes it is sufficient to guarantee it. That confuses a necessary condition with a sufficient one. The remaining choices describe unrelated errors (post hoc, absence of evidence, faulty analogy, part-whole) not committed here.

Question 6

An economist notes that after Riverton opened its new light-rail line, downtown employment grew 15% over two years, while in comparable cities without light rail, downtown employment grew only 5%. Therefore, the light-rail system caused Riverton's superior job growth. The evaluation appropriately examined cities of similar size and climate, so differences in growth must be due to the transit investment.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

  1. Several large employers publicly cited the new rail line as a factor in choosing downtown locations.
  2. Ridership on the rail line exceeded projections during those two years.
  3. The comparison cities share Riverton's climate and population size.
  4. Downtown office rents in Riverton increased over the period in question.
  5. Riverton simultaneously enacted substantial temporary tax credits for employers who located downtown. (correct answer)

Explanation: Tax credits provide a plausible alternative cause of downtown job growth, undermining the claim that rail caused the increase. The other choices either support the transit explanation or are neutral background facts.

Question 7

On the same weekend that the cafe began hosting live jazz, several online reviewers posted glowing comments about the cafe. Because those positive reviews appeared only after the music started, the live jazz must have caused the surge in praise. The timing cannot be a coincidence; therefore, management should keep the performances that are clearly responsible for the improved reputation.

Which one of the following best describes the pattern of reasoning in the argument?

  1. treating a correlation as evidence that two phenomena have a common cause
  2. generalizing from a small, unrepresentative sample of cases
  3. concluding that because something is desirable, it must be the cause of a benefit
  4. arguing that because a situation has persisted, it will continue to persist
  5. inferring a causal relationship merely from the fact that one event occurred after another (correct answer)

Explanation: It assumes that because positive reviews followed the start of live music, the music caused them. The other choices mischaracterize the reasoning (e.g., no appeal to common cause or persistence).

Question 8

Traffic congestion downtown has worsened this year. Either the city expands the central highway or congestion will continue to get worse. Side streets cannot be widened because of historic buildings, so the highway expansion is our only real option. The city budget has a surplus this quarter, and contractors are ready to begin within weeks. Therefore, the council should approve the expansion immediately.

The reasoning above is flawed for which of the following reasons?

  1. It treats the contrapositive of a conditional claim as though it were its converse.
  2. It presumes that there are only two options when other reasonable alternatives have not been ruled out. (correct answer)
  3. It bases a firm conclusion on a sample that is too small to be reliable.
  4. It infers that what is true of a part of the city must be true of the entire city.
  5. It infers that a policy is morally justified merely because it is legal.

Explanation: By asserting only highway expansion or worsening congestion, the argument ignores potential alternatives such as demand management or transit improvements. Choice B identifies this false dilemma. The other answers describe different errors (conditional converse, small sample, composition, legality/morality) not committed here.

Question 9

Last year, the city replaced all streetlights with LED fixtures. In the six months after the switch, the city's electricity costs for street lighting fell by 18 percent compared to the same months the previous year. The city council concludes that the LEDs caused the savings. Some residents, however, note that nights were unusually short and temperate this summer. The conclusion would be stronger if other factors, such as fewer hours of darkness or reduced lamp usage, did not explain the decrease.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

  1. During the six months following the switch, average nightly hours of darkness were similar to those in the same months of the prior year. (correct answer)
  2. The upfront cost of LED fixtures was higher than that of the previous bulbs.
  3. Some neighboring towns also reported lower electricity costs this year.
  4. LED fixtures typically last longer before needing replacement than traditional bulbs.
  5. Police reported fewer nighttime incidents during the six months after the switch.

Explanation: A rules out a key alternative explanation by showing usage duration was comparable, supporting LEDs as the cause of the savings. The other choices are irrelevant to energy use during the period or introduce confounding information.

Question 10

A city memo claims that extending library hours will increase literacy rates. Last year, a neighboring city extended its library hours and also saw literacy rates rise. Our city’s literacy rates have been flat for three years, and many residents say they would visit the library more often if it were open later. Moreover, most of the books and tutoring programs already exist; only staffing hours would change. Therefore, if we extend library hours, literacy rates in our city will rise. The statement that last year, a neighboring city extended its library hours and also saw literacy rates rise plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

  1. It provides a general principle that the argument applies to the city’s case.
  2. It offers an example meant to support the prediction about what will happen if the policy is adopted. (correct answer)
  3. It states the main conclusion that the rest of the argument is intended to establish.
  4. It concedes a point that appears to weaken the argument’s overall position.
  5. It defines a key term whose meaning is required for the argument to proceed.

Explanation: In this argument, the main conclusion is that extending library hours will increase literacy rates in the city. The statement about the neighboring city serves as an example intended to support this prediction. By showing that another similar city both extended library hours and saw literacy rates rise, the author provides empirical evidence suggesting the proposed policy will work. This is a classic use of analogy or precedent to support a prediction about future outcomes. Answer choice (A) is tempting because the neighboring city example might seem like a general principle, but it's actually a specific case study rather than a broad rule. When analyzing role-of-a-statement questions, pay attention to whether the statement provides concrete evidence for the conclusion or establishes broader logical frameworks.

Question 11

A library extended its weekend hours, and attendance on Saturdays increased by 30% compared with the previous month. Several patrons told staff that the longer hours made it easier to visit, and more books were checked out on weekends. Since increased access leads to greater use, the extended hours caused the rise in attendance. Therefore, if the library extends hours every day of the week, overall community literacy will improve markedly.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?

  1. The month the library extended hours, a popular author gave a talk at the library on two Saturdays. (correct answer)
  2. Some patrons prefer using digital books rather than visiting the library in person.
  3. It is possible that attendance rose because the weather was unusually bad, giving people fewer outdoor options.
  4. The library’s building will need maintenance regardless of its operating hours.
  5. Greater access to books and reading spaces can encourage more frequent reading.

Explanation: The argument concludes that extended weekend hours caused increased Saturday attendance and that extending hours every day will markedly improve community literacy, based on 30% higher Saturday attendance and more weekend book checkouts after hour extensions. The argument assumes the longer hours alone drove this increase. However, choice A reveals that during the month of extended hours, a popular author gave talks at the library on two Saturdays. Author events are significant draws that could easily account for a 30% attendance spike, making the special programming rather than extended hours the likely cause. Choice E about access encouraging reading is tempting because it supports the general principle, but it strengthens rather than weakens the argument. When evaluating attendance increases, look for special events or programming that could provide alternative explanations for higher visitor numbers.

Question 12

A university department adopts this principle for approving independent-study courses: A proposal should be approved if, and only if, it includes (1) a faculty supervisor who agrees in writing, (2) a reading list with at least five scholarly sources, and (3) a final evaluative component such as an exam, paper, or project. Proposals missing any of these elements should be denied, regardless of the student’s academic standing. The department uses this principle to decide which proposals to accept.

Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle stated above?

  1. A proposal includes a written faculty agreement and a final paper, but only four scholarly sources on the reading list, so the department denies it.
  2. A proposal includes a written faculty agreement, eight scholarly sources, and a final project, so the department approves it. (correct answer)
  3. A proposal includes a written faculty agreement, six scholarly sources, and a final exam, but the student has a low GPA, so the department denies it.
  4. A proposal includes a reading list with at least five scholarly sources and a final paper, but the faculty supervisor has not agreed in writing, so the department approves it because the topic is timely.
  5. A proposal is denied because the student previously dropped a different independent study, even though the proposal includes a written faculty agreement, five scholarly sources, and a final project.

Explanation: The principle establishes a biconditional rule: approve if and only if all three elements are present—written faculty agreement, at least five scholarly sources, and a final evaluative component. This means approval requires all three conditions, and having all three guarantees approval. Choice B correctly demonstrates this: the proposal includes a written faculty agreement, eight scholarly sources (exceeding the minimum five), and a final project, so the department approves it. Choice A might appear correct since it follows the denial rule, but the principle requires exactly these three elements for approval. When applying biconditional principles (if and only if), verify that all necessary conditions are met and that meeting them leads to the stated outcome.

Question 13

After the city installed new park benches downtown, reported incidents of petty theft declined over the next two months. The mayor concludes that the benches made the neighborhood safer. But the decline coincided with the start of colder weather and an increase in evening police patrols. Still, the mayor insists that because the drop followed the installation, the benches were the cause. Therefore, the city should install similar benches in all neighborhoods to improve safety citywide.

The argument proceeds by doing which of the following?

  1. Inferring a causal relationship from a mere temporal correlation while ignoring plausible alternative explanations (correct answer)
  2. Drawing an analogy between two cases without establishing their relevant similarity
  3. Assuming the truth of the conclusion in the premises (begging the question)
  4. Eliminating all but one option to conclude that remaining option must be true
  5. Applying a general rule to a specific case despite evidence that the case is an exception

Explanation: The argument treats the decline in theft as caused by the benches simply because it followed the installation and disregards other factors like weather and increased patrols. That is reasoning from correlation to causation without ruling out alternatives. The other choices describe methods (analogy, circularity, process of elimination, misapplied rule) that the argument does not employ.

Question 14

Either the new encryption law deters cybercrime or it is useless. No one has conclusively demonstrated that cybercrime rates have fallen because of the law; studies are inconclusive and evidence is sparse. Therefore, the law is useless. Legislators should repeal it and focus on measures that clearly work. Until proof appears, we must not credit it with any benefit at all.

Which of the following most accurately describes the argumentative strategy?

  1. Drawing a general conclusion from a small, unrepresentative sample
  2. Concluding a causal claim because two events occurred together
  3. Treating a necessary condition as sufficient for the desired outcome
  4. Posing a binary choice and inferring one option solely because the other lacks conclusive proof (correct answer)
  5. Reasoning by analogy from an unrelated policy domain

Explanation: The argument sets up an exhaustive disjunction and then, based only on a lack of proof for one side, concludes the other must be true, an appeal to ignorance grounded in a false dilemma. That matches D. The other choices describe sampling errors, correlation-causation confusions, conditional mistakes, or analogies that are not present.

Question 15

Last spring, the city introduced hourly fees for the once free parking spaces surrounding Riverside Park. Officials anticipated that charging for parking would deter casual visits, yet, in the three months after the policy, foot traffic counters at park entrances recorded a significant increase in visitors. Merchants on the park's edge also reported higher weekend sales tied to park goers. Nothing about the park's attractions changed during this period, and public transit service remained the same.

Which of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent contradiction?

  1. The city launched an advertising campaign highlighting the park's historical exhibits.
  2. Revenue from the new fees will fund tree planting in the park next year.
  3. Before the change, commuters occupied most spaces all day; the new fees deterred them, freeing spots for park visitors. (correct answer)
  4. A nearby museum closed for renovations during the same period.
  5. The new parking fee was small compared to rates in nearby private garages.

Explanation: If commuters had been tying up spaces, the fee freeing them for park users would increase park visits despite the charge. The other options do not directly link the fee to increased access for park goers or fail to address the parking bottleneck.

Question 16

Publishing analysts claim that every award-winning novel owes its success either to an established author's reputation or to an aggressive marketing push. Debut novels, by definition, are not written by established authors. River Glow is a debut novel that won a major award. Therefore, River Glow must have benefited from an aggressive marketing push. No other routes to such recognition are acknowledged.

Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above?

  1. A. All elite athletes are either naturally gifted or rigorously trained; some sprinters are not naturally gifted; this sprinter is elite; therefore this sprinter is naturally gifted.
  2. B. All certified exports are either inspected or sealed; perishable items are not sealed; this shipment is a certified export and is perishable; therefore it was inspected. (correct answer)
  3. C. All award ceremonies honor work that is both original and influential; debut pieces are not influential; this piece won an award; therefore it is original.
  4. D. All licensed contractors are certified or apprenticed; interns are not certified; this person is an intern; therefore this person is apprenticed.
  5. E. All acclaimed albums are independently produced or expertly mixed; this album is acclaimed; therefore it is expertly mixed.

Explanation: The passage has the form: all A are B or C; no D are B; x is A and D; therefore x is C. Choice B mirrors that exact pattern with 'certified export' as A, 'inspected'/'sealed' as B/C, 'perishable' as D, and the same conclusion form. The other choices alter 'or' to 'and' (C), omit a necessary intersecting category (D, E), or misinfer B despite information that would block it (A).

Question 17

At high altitudes, many plants of a certain species have thicker leaves, which reduces water loss in dry air. A horticulturist proposes growing that species at sea level in a greenhouse kept at very low humidity to obtain thicker leaves. Thus, lowering humidity for that species will cause its leaves to thicken.

Which one of the following assumptions permits the conclusion above to be properly drawn?

  1. Temperature, light, and soil nutrients will be identical in the greenhouse and at high altitude.
  2. The species is more valuable when it has thicker leaves.
  3. High ultraviolet radiation at high altitude does not harm this species.
  4. Leaf thickness in this species varies in response to humidity rather than being fixed genetically in high-altitude populations. (correct answer)
  5. Greenhouses maintained at low humidity are inexpensive to operate.

Explanation: The conclusion requires that leaf thickness is environmentally responsive to humidity, not genetically fixed. If thickness is not affected by humidity, lowering it would not cause thicker leaves.

Question 18

A newspaper reports that the number of reported bicycle thefts in a neighborhood declined after the police installed more street cameras. Yet a local insurance company reports that the total amount it paid out for bicycle theft claims in that neighborhood increased during the same period. The insurance company did not change its coverage terms, and the neighborhood’s population remained stable. Both the newspaper and the insurer say their figures cover the same six-month period before and after the cameras were installed.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?

  1. The street cameras were installed primarily on the neighborhood’s main commercial streets rather than on residential side streets.
  2. Bicycles stolen during the later period tended to be more expensive than those stolen during the earlier period. (correct answer)
  3. The police department increased patrols in the neighborhood during the later period.
  4. Some residents purchased new bicycles during the later period because of a local cycling initiative.
  5. The insurance company processes claims more quickly now than it did in the earlier period.

Explanation: The paradox involves fewer reported bicycle thefts after camera installation but higher insurance payouts for such claims, suggesting thefts declined yet costs rose. To resolve it, we need something that lets payouts increase despite fewer incidents. The correct answer provides this by indicating stolen bikes were more expensive in the later period, raising total claim values with fewer thefts. A tempting wrong choice might discuss camera placement on main streets, but this explains theft patterns without linking to payout increases. It relates to prevention but misses the financial discrepancy. The key strategy is adding context, such as value shifts, to make both facts compatible rather than dismissing one side.

Question 19

A company changed its meeting policy so that all weekly team meetings must end within 30 minutes. After the change, employees reported spending more time on focused work, and the number of missed project deadlines declined. Because the company did not hire additional staff, the operations director concludes that shorter meetings improved efficiency. Therefore, if the company applies the same 30-minute limit to all meetings, including planning sessions and trainings, overall performance will improve even more, since employees will have even fewer interruptions.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

  1. After the policy change, the company did not also reduce the number of meetings teams were required to hold each week.
  2. Some complex planning discussions are easier to conduct when participants have more than 30 minutes.
  3. Employees at the company use a shared calendar system to schedule meetings.
  4. The company’s performance reviews are conducted twice per year rather than once per year.
  5. In the months after the policy change, the company did not also adopt a new project-tracking tool that could have reduced missed deadlines. (correct answer)

Explanation: The company's argument concludes that 30-minute meeting limits improved efficiency and reduced missed deadlines, predicting greater benefits from broader implementation. The weakness is that other workplace changes could have occurred simultaneously, affecting project completion rates. Choice E strengthens the argument by confirming that the company didn't adopt new project-tracking tools during the same period that could have independently reduced missed deadlines. Choice A is tempting because meeting frequency matters, but new tracking systems would more directly impact deadline management than meeting quantity changes. To strengthen causal arguments about productivity improvements, eliminate concurrent organizational changes such as new management tools or systems that could produce similar efficiency gains through different mechanisms.

Question 20

A restaurant chain introduced a simplified menu and reports that kitchen errors, such as incorrect side dishes and missing items, decreased based on managers’ incident logs. Yet customer feedback collected through the chain’s mobile app shows an increase in complaints about inaccurate orders during the same weeks. The chain did not change its ingredient suppliers, and it did not switch to a new point-of-sale system. Both the incident logs and the app feedback are said to cover all locations and to be compiled daily throughout the period.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?

  1. Managers are required to log only errors that result in a refund, while app feedback includes complaints even when customers do not request refunds. (correct answer)
  2. The simplified menu reduced the number of available side dishes at each restaurant location.
  3. Some customers prefer to place orders in person rather than through the mobile app.
  4. Several locations hired new kitchen staff shortly before the simplified menu was introduced.
  5. The chain ran a promotion that increased overall order volume during the weeks in question.

Explanation: In this paradox, managers' logs show fewer kitchen errors after a menu simplification, but app feedback indicates more complaints about order inaccuracies. Resolution requires explaining the divergence in error reporting sources. The correct choice bridges this by noting managers log only refund-worthy errors, while app complaints include non-refunded issues, allowing logged errors to drop as minor complaints rise. A tempting distractor could mention reduced side dishes, but this justifies simplification without resolving the feedback increase. It addresses the menu change but not the data split. For paradoxes, introduce context like differing criteria to harmonize facts, rather than picking a side in the conflict.

Question 21

Dr. Patel: The hospital should adopt an opt-out organ donation registry. Countries with opt-out systems have higher donation rates, and the default matters because most people support donation but never fill out forms. We can still respect autonomy by making opting out quick and well publicized. Professor Lang: A higher rate is not enough if consent is murky. Many people will remain enrolled simply from confusion, not genuine agreement, and that undermines trust in medicine. Better to keep opt-in and invest in education so donors actively choose. The speakers disagree about which one of the following?

  1. whether public education about donation can increase the number of registered donors
  2. whether an opt-out registry would increase donation rates compared with an opt-in registry
  3. whether an opt-out registry can preserve meaningful consent through easy, well-publicized opting out (correct answer)
  4. whether most people support organ donation in the abstract
  5. whether the hospital currently has sufficient staff to manage a registry

Explanation: As an experienced LSAT tutor, I'll guide you through this point-at-issue question by focusing on the exact claim where Dr. Patel and Professor Lang diverge. Patel affirms that an opt-out registry preserves meaningful consent via easy, well-publicized opting out, positioning it as a way to respect autonomy while boosting rates. Lang denies this, contending that consent becomes murky due to confusion, leading to enrollment without genuine agreement and eroding trust. This is a provable disagreement because Patel's proposal hinges on the system's ability to maintain consent, whereas Lang's critique directly rejects that capability in favor of opt-in. Watch out for tempting choice (B), which concerns whether opt-out increases rates compared to opt-in—Patel asserts this, but Lang does not dispute the rate increase, only its ethical value. The strategy for these questions is to seek a proposition one speaker must agree with and the other must reject, avoiding options that reflect shared assumptions or points only one addresses.

Question 22

Manager Ortiz: We should switch our customer support to a four-day workweek. Trials show fewer sick days and lower turnover, so coverage can remain steady even with shorter weeks. You’re concerned about response times, but we can stagger schedules and keep the same weekly hours of coverage. Happier agents handle calls better, which reduces repeat contacts. Manager Blake: A four-day week will hurt service. Staggering sounds workable until peak demand hits; then fewer agents are available at once. And the trial data you cite came from teams with different products and simpler issues. If response times rise, customer churn will erase any savings from turnover. The point at issue between the two speakers is whether…​

  1. lower turnover can reduce hiring and training costs for customer support teams
  2. peak demand periods can create staffing challenges even with careful scheduling
  3. the trial data came from teams that handled products with simpler support issues
  4. a four-day workweek can be implemented without harming overall customer service outcomes (correct answer)
  5. customer churn is always caused primarily by response time rather than issue resolution

Explanation: This point-at-issue question requires identifying the proposition that Manager Ortiz affirms while Manager Blake denies based on their explicit statements. Ortiz advocates for the four-day workweek, arguing that coverage can "remain steady" and "happier agents handle calls better," clearly believing the change can be implemented successfully without harming service, while Blake directly opposes this, claiming it "will hurt service" due to peak demand issues and potential increases in response times that could "erase any savings." The correct answer (D) precisely captures this disagreement about whether the change can be implemented without harming customer service outcomes. Answer choice (C) about the trial data's source is tempting because Blake mentions this concern, but Ortiz never commits to a position about where the trial data came from—Ortiz simply cites the data without defending its applicability. Point-at-issue questions test whether you can distinguish between a concern only one speaker raises versus a proposition about which they take opposite positions.

Question 23

A tech reviewer reasons: Every phone model that has an IP68 rating can withstand accidental submersion in water for a short time. The Zephyr Z9 has an IP68 rating. Therefore, the Zephyr Z9 can withstand accidental submersion in water for a short time. The reviewer adds that battery life and screen quality vary widely among IP68 phones, but that is irrelevant to water resistance.

The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following principles?

  1. If all items meeting a standard have a capability, then any item meeting that standard has that capability. (correct answer)
  2. If an item has a capability, then it must meet the standard that usually indicates it.
  3. If an item meets a standard, then it is superior overall to items that do not meet it.
  4. If two items share one rating, then they share all other important qualities as well.
  5. If a rating is used in marketing, then it should not be trusted to indicate real performance.

Explanation: The reviewer states that every IP68-rated phone withstands brief submersion, so the Zephyr Z9, with that rating, will too, irrelevant of variations in other features. This applies a universal conditional: the rating sufficiently ensures water resistance. A principle should validate that meeting the standard guarantees the capability for any such item. Answer A aligns precisely, focusing on the argument's logical scope without broadening to overall superiority. Choice B tempts by reversing to make capability imply the standard, mismatched to the forward inference. In these questions, pair the principle with the argument's deductive step, like applying a universal to a specific, not to unrelated qualities or inversions.

Question 24

Some people insist that any caffeine is harmful, claiming it inevitably disrupts sleep. However, research shows that caffeine's effects dissipate within several hours. If consumed in the morning, it will not affect sleep that night. So blaming a morning cup for afternoon fatigue is misguided; those complaints likely stem from insufficient rest or poor nutrition instead. Claims to the contrary ignore basic pharmacology.

The role of the statement 'Some people insist that any caffeine is harmful, claiming it inevitably disrupts sleep.' is to

  1. Provide the argument's overall conclusion.
  2. State a definition of caffeine's physiological effects.
  3. Offer evidence that morning caffeine improves sleep quality.
  4. Acknowledge a limitation in the cited research.
  5. Present a position the author intends to dispute. (correct answer)

Explanation: It introduces the opposing view that the author challenges. It is not the author's conclusion, a definition, supporting evidence, or a limitation.

Question 25

Last quarter, Store A increased its customer base by 20 percent, while its rival, Store B, increased its base by only 10 percent. The marketing director concludes that Store A added more customers than Store B and thus had the more successful campaign. Since percentage growth measures improvement fairly across companies, no further information is needed to compare their gains. Therefore, the director allocates next year's budget primarily to Store A's strategy.

The reasoning above is flawed for which of the following reasons?

  1. It treats a percentage increase as if it established a greater absolute increase in number. (correct answer)
  2. It assumes that because one event follows another, the first caused the second.
  3. It disputes a position by attacking the rival's motives rather than the evidence.
  4. It restates its conclusion as a premise instead of providing support for it.
  5. It shifts the meaning of a key term during the course of the argument.

Explanation: A larger percentage increase does not guarantee a larger number of customers added if the initial bases differ. The argument does not infer causation from sequence, attack motives, or argue in a circle. There is no equivocation on a key term.