Elementary School Science Quiz: Explaining Motion Results
20 questions · exam conditions
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Explaining Motion ResultsQuestion 1 of 20

A toy car rolled 160 cm on wood but only 70 cm on carpet after the same push. Use evidence to explain why.

The car went 160 cm on wood and 70 cm on carpet, so wood is bigger than carpet.
The car rolled less on carpet because it went 70 cm there, showing more friction force slowed it sooner than on wood at 160 cm.
The car rolled less on carpet because carpet is soft and makes the car feel sleepy.
The car rolled less on carpet because the push force was stronger on wood even though the push was the same.
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Elementary School Science Quiz

Elementary School Science Quiz: Explaining Motion Results

Practice Explaining Motion Results in Elementary School Science with focused quiz questions that help you check what you know, review explanations, and build confidence with test-style prompts.

What this quiz covers

This quiz focuses on Explaining Motion Results, giving you a quick way to practice the rules, question types, and explanations that matter most for Elementary School Science.

How to use this quiz

Try each quiz question before looking at the correct answer. Use the explanations to review missed ideas, then come back to similar questions until the pattern feels familiar.

All questions

Question 1

A toy car rolled 160 cm on wood but only 70 cm on carpet after the same push. Use evidence to explain why.

  1. The car went 160 cm on wood and 70 cm on carpet, so wood is bigger than carpet.
  2. The car rolled less on carpet because it went 70 cm there, showing more friction force slowed it sooner than on wood at 160 cm. (correct answer)
  3. The car rolled less on carpet because carpet is soft and makes the car feel sleepy.
  4. The car rolled less on carpet because the push force was stronger on wood even though the push was the same.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a toy car rolled 160 cm on wood but 70 cm on carpet with same push, showing a pattern of shorter distance on carpet. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about rolling less on carpet, evidence from 70 cm and 160 cm, and reasoning that more friction force on carpet slowed it sooner. The distractors fail by missing evidence, introducing irrelevant ideas like sleepiness, or misattributing force strength without basis. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of rolling on floors. Practice by having students connect their observations of rolling distances to force concepts through tests on different materials.

Question 2

A swing stayed still with no push, rose 30 cm with gentle, 75 cm with strong. Explain why higher.

  1. The swing went higher with a stronger push because it reached 75 cm, showing a bigger force makes bigger motion. (correct answer)
  2. The swing went higher because it likes strong pushes better than gentle ones.
  3. The swing went higher because no push is the strongest force.
  4. The swing rose 30 cm and 75 cm when pushed.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a swing reached different heights based on push strength, showing a pattern of higher rise with stronger pushes. The correct answer works because it claims stronger force causes bigger motion, provides evidence of 75 cm height, and reasons linking force magnitude to motion extent. Distractors fail by using preferences, just stating data, or misunderstanding no push as strongest. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with playground equipment. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of varying pushes.

Question 3

A book slid 2 m on smooth, 80 cm on carpet, and 30 cm on rough. Explain why distances changed using evidence.

  1. The book slid farthest on smooth because it went 2 m there, showing less friction force so it kept moving longer than on rough. (correct answer)
  2. The book slid farther on smooth because smooth floors are nicer and help books glide.
  3. The book went 2 m, 80 cm, and 30 cm, so the smooth surface was the longest number.
  4. The book slid 30 cm on rough because rough surfaces give the book more push force.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a book slid 2 m on smooth, 80 cm on carpet, and 30 cm on rough surfaces, showing a pattern of shorter distances on rougher surfaces. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about farthest sliding on smooth, evidence from the 2 m distance, and reasoning that less friction force allowed longer motion. The distractors fail by missing evidence, introducing irrelevant ideas like niceness, or restating numbers without force reasoning. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of sliding on different textures. Practice by having students connect their observations of sliding distances to force concepts through hands-on tests with various surfaces.

Question 4

A rope stayed centered with equal pulls, then moved 40 cm right when one side pulled harder. Explain why using evidence.

  1. The rope moved 40 cm right when one side pulled harder, showing unbalanced pulling forces changed the rope's motion toward the stronger pull. (correct answer)
  2. The rope moved 40 cm right because balanced forces always make objects move to the right.
  3. The rope stayed centered, then it moved 40 cm right, so the middle mark changed places.
  4. The rope moved right because the right team had more friends watching.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a rope stayed centered with equal pulls but moved 40 cm right with harder pull on one side, showing a pattern of motion with unbalanced forces. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about moving 40 cm right, evidence from the movement, and reasoning that unbalanced pulling forces changed motion toward stronger pull. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using irrelevant ideas like friends watching, or misstating balanced forces as causing motion. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of rope pulls in games. Practice by having students connect their observations of rope shifts to force concepts through team-based tug activities.

Question 5

A book slid 2 m on smooth, 80 cm on carpet, 30 cm on rough. Explain why distances differed.

  1. It slid 2 m, 80 cm, and 30 cm on the three surfaces.
  2. The book went farthest because smooth floors are nicer and help books travel.
  3. The book went farthest on smooth because it slid 2 m there, showing less friction means less stopping force. (correct answer)
  4. The book went less on smooth because friction is strongest on smooth floors.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a book slid different distances on various surfaces, showing a pattern of farther travel on smoother surfaces. The correct answer works because it claims less friction on smooth surfaces allows farther motion, provides evidence of 2 m distance, and reasons that reduced stopping force affects sliding. Distractors fail by lacking reasoning, introducing irrelevant niceness, just listing data, or incorrectly stating friction strength. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with sliding objects. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations on different surfaces.

Question 6

Students pushed a toy car: gentle 50 cm, medium 100 cm, strong 180 cm. Explain why it went farthest.

  1. The car went 50 cm, 100 cm, and 180 cm with different pushes.
  2. The car went far because the student wanted it to, and that made it move more.
  3. It went farthest because the floor was blue, which made the car faster.
  4. The car went farthest with the strong push because it rolled 180 cm, showing a stronger force makes more motion. (correct answer)
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, students observed a toy car traveling different distances based on push strength, showing a pattern of increasing distance with stronger pushes. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about stronger force causing more motion, evidence of 180 cm distance, and reasoning linking force strength to motion extent. Distractors fail by either lacking evidence, introducing irrelevant factors like floor color, or not connecting to force concepts. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with everyday objects. Practice by having students connect force observations to their own experiments.

Question 7

A ball rolled 5 m, slowed down, then stopped. What caused it to stop? Use evidence.

  1. It stopped because it rolled 5 m and got tired, so it decided to quit moving.
  2. It stopped because friction pushed against it; the ball slowed and stopped after 5 m, showing an unbalanced force. (correct answer)
  3. It stopped because the ball was round, and round things always stop quickly.
  4. The data shows it rolled 5 m before stopping.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a ball was observed rolling 5 m before slowing and stopping, demonstrating a pattern of deceleration due to an opposing force. The correct answer works because it claims friction as the cause, provides evidence of slowing after 5 m, and reasons that unbalanced force from friction stops motion. Distractors fail by missing evidence, using incorrect reasoning like tiredness, or just restating data without explanation. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with rolling objects. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of stopping motion.

Question 8

In tug-of-war, equal pulls kept the rope in the middle, but unequal pulls moved it 60 cm left. Explain why using evidence.

  1. The rope moved 60 cm left because the left team pulled harder, so forces were unbalanced and the motion changed toward the stronger pull. (correct answer)
  2. The rope moved left because the left team was louder, which made the rope go their way.
  3. Equal pulls kept the rope in the middle, and unequal pulls moved it 60 cm left.
  4. The rope moved 60 cm left because equal forces always make things move faster.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a tug-of-war rope stayed in the middle with equal pulls but moved 60 cm left with unequal pulls, showing a pattern of motion change with unbalanced forces. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about the rope moving 60 cm left, evidence from the movement, and reasoning that unbalanced forces from harder pulling changed motion toward the stronger side. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using wrong reasoning like loudness or incorrect force ideas, or restating observations without proper connection. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of balanced and unbalanced tugs. Practice by having students connect their observations of rope motion to force concepts through group activities simulating pulls.

Question 9

A light box moved 120 cm with a gentle push, but a heavy box needed a strong push to move 120 cm. Explain why using evidence.

  1. The heavy box needed a stronger push to go 120 cm, showing more force is needed to change motion more when an object is heavier. (correct answer)
  2. Both boxes went 120 cm, so both pushes were the same strength.
  3. The heavy box needed a strong push because heavy things are mean and do not want to move.
  4. The heavy box moved because the distance of 120 cm caused the push to get stronger.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a light box moved 120 cm gently, but a heavy box needed strong push for 120 cm, showing a pattern that heavier objects require more force for same motion. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about heavy box needing stronger push, evidence from the 120 cm distance, and reasoning that more force changes motion for heavier objects. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using personification like meanness, or reversing cause and effect without force connection. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of pushing light and heavy items. Practice by having students connect their observations of required pushes to force concepts through experiments with varying masses.

Question 10

A wagon got two pushes: same direction went fast; opposite equal stayed still; opposite unequal went slow. Explain why.

  1. Same direction made it fast, opposite equal made it still, and opposite unequal made it slow.
  2. Opposite equal pushes made it still because unbalanced forces always stop motion.
  3. It went fast because the wagon is red, and red wagons move faster.
  4. It stayed still with opposite equal pushes because the forces balanced, but it went fast with same-direction pushes making unbalanced force. (correct answer)
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a wagon's motion varied with push directions and strengths, showing patterns of speed based on force balance. The correct answer works because it claims balanced forces keep still and unbalanced cause motion, provides evidence of still versus fast outcomes, and reasons using force direction and balance. Distractors fail by introducing irrelevant color, just describing results, or misunderstanding unbalanced forces. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with pushed objects. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of multiple forces.

Question 11

A light box moved with a gentle push, but a heavy box needed a strong push. Explain why using evidence.

  1. The heavy box needed a strong push because it is heavier, so it takes a bigger force to start its motion. (correct answer)
  2. The heavy box needed a strong push because the light box was closer to the student.
  3. The heavy box needed a strong push because the student pushed harder on it.
  4. The light box moved with a gentle push and the heavy box needed a strong push.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, boxes of different masses required varying push strengths to move, showing a pattern related to mass and force needed. The correct answer works because it claims heavier objects need bigger forces, provides evidence of gentle versus strong pushes, and reasons linking mass to motion initiation. Distractors fail by introducing irrelevant distance, being tautological, or just restating data without reasoning. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with objects of different weights. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of mass effects.

Question 12

Students pushed a toy car: gentle 50 cm, medium 100 cm, strong 180 cm. Use data to explain pattern.

  1. It went farther because stronger pushes went 50 cm, 100 cm, then 180 cm, showing more force causes more motion. (correct answer)
  2. It went farther because cars like being pushed strongly, and that makes them roll.
  3. It went farthest on the medium push because 100 cm is bigger than 180 cm.
  4. The results were 50 cm, 100 cm, and 180 cm for the three pushes.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a toy car traveled increasing distances with stronger pushes, showing a clear pattern in the data. The correct answer works because it claims more force causes more motion, provides evidence of 50 cm, 100 cm, 180 cm distances, and reasons linking force strength to motion. Distractors fail by using preferences, incorrect comparisons, or just listing data without connection. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with varying forces. Practice by having students connect force concepts to patterned observations.

Question 13

A ball rolled fast, then slowed, and stopped after 5 m. Explain why it slowed using evidence.

  1. It slowed because friction pushed against its motion; it rolled 5 m then stopped, showing a force slowed it down. (correct answer)
  2. It slowed because the push disappeared, so the ball pulled itself backward.
  3. It rolled 5 m before it stopped.
  4. It slowed because someone watched it, and being watched makes objects slow down.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a ball slowed and stopped after 5 m, demonstrating a pattern of deceleration. The correct answer works because it claims friction as the slowing force, provides evidence of 5 m travel then stop, and reasons that opposing force affects motion. Distractors fail by introducing watching, incorrect self-pulling, or just stating distance without reasoning. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples of slowing objects. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of friction.

Question 14

In tug-of-war, equal pulls kept the rope middle still; unequal pulls moved it. Explain why using data.

  1. Equal pulls kept the middle still, but unequal pulls moved it, showing unbalanced forces cause motion changes. (correct answer)
  2. The rope moved because balanced forces always make things move faster.
  3. The rope was in the middle first, and then it moved later.
  4. The rope moved because one team yelled louder, and yelling is a stronger force.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, the rope's middle stayed still with equal pulls but moved with unequal pulls, showing a pattern related to force balance. The correct answer works because it claims unbalanced forces cause motion changes, provides evidence of still versus moving positions, and reasons using balanced versus unbalanced forces. Distractors fail by introducing irrelevant factors like yelling, just describing data, or misunderstanding balanced forces. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with tug-of-war scenarios. Practice by having students connect force concepts to observations of balanced and unbalanced situations.

Question 15

A wagon got fast with two pushes same direction, stayed still with equal opposite pushes, and moved slowly with unequal opposite pushes. Explain why using evidence.

  1. The wagon stayed still because wagons like to rest when two people touch them.
  2. With equal opposite pushes the wagon stayed still, showing balanced forces; with unequal opposite pushes it moved slowly because one force was stronger. (correct answer)
  3. Equal opposite pushes made the wagon still because unbalanced forces always cancel and make things move faster.
  4. Two pushes made it fast, then it was still, then it was slow, so the wagon changed a lot.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a wagon moved fast with same-direction pushes, stayed still with equal opposites, and slowly with unequal opposites, showing patterns based on force balance. The correct answer works because it includes claims about still with balanced and slow with unbalanced, evidence from the motions, and reasoning that stronger force in unbalanced cases changes motion. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using whimsical ideas like resting, or misstating force effects like unbalanced causing cancellation. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of pushing objects in groups. Practice by having students connect their observations of wagon speeds to force concepts through collaborative push-pull activities.

Question 16

A ball rolled fast, slowed down, and stopped after 5 m. Use evidence to explain why it stopped.

  1. The ball stopped after 5 m because friction was a force that pushed against its motion and slowed it until it stopped. (correct answer)
  2. The ball stopped because balls always stop when they get tired.
  3. The ball rolled 5 m, so it must have been pushed 5 times.
  4. The ball stopped after 5 m, and it slowed down, and then it stopped.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a ball rolled 5 m before stopping, showing a pattern of slowing down due to an opposing force. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about the ball stopping after 5 m, evidence from the distance, and reasoning that friction as a force pushed against motion to slow it down. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using incorrect reasoning like tiredness or pushes, or restating observations without force concepts. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of objects slowing on different surfaces. Practice by having students connect their observations of stopping motion to force concepts through experiments like rolling objects and measuring distances.

Question 17

A ball rolled 6 m on tile but stopped after 3 m on grass when pushed the same. Explain why using data.

  1. The ball went 6 m and 3 m, so it rolled different distances on different places.
  2. The ball stopped sooner on grass because grass is outside and tile is inside.
  3. The ball stopped sooner on grass because it only went 3 m, showing grass had more friction force that slowed it faster than tile at 6 m. (correct answer)
  4. The ball stopped sooner on grass because the ball's stopping made the grass create friction after it stopped.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a ball rolled 6 m on tile but 3 m on grass with same push, showing a pattern of quicker stopping on grass. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about stopping sooner on grass, evidence from 3 m and 6 m, and reasoning that more friction force on grass slowed it faster. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using location-based ideas, or reversing cause like stopping creating friction. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of balls on surfaces. Practice by having students connect their observations of stopping points to force concepts through outdoor and indoor rolling activities.

Question 18

A toy car was pushed gently 50 cm, medium 100 cm, and strong 180 cm. Explain why it went farthest using evidence.

  1. The car went farthest with the strong push because it went 180 cm, showing a stronger push is a bigger force that changes motion more. (correct answer)
  2. The car went far because the student wanted it to go far and pushed it hard.
  3. The car went 50 cm, 100 cm, and 180 cm, so the results were different each time.
  4. The car went farthest because the floor was blue, and blue floors make cars roll farther.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a toy car was pushed with varying strengths, resulting in distances of 50 cm gently, 100 cm medium, and 180 cm strongly, showing a pattern that stronger pushes lead to greater distances. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about the farthest distance with the strong push, evidence from the 180 cm measurement, and reasoning that a stronger push is a bigger force changing motion more. The distractors fail by either missing evidence, lacking reasoning about forces, or introducing irrelevant ideas like student intent or floor color without connecting to force effects. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples from everyday pushes and pulls. Practice by having students connect their observations of motion to force concepts through simple experiments like rolling balls with different strengths.

Question 19

A swing stayed still with no push, rose 30 cm with a gentle push, and 75 cm with a strong push. Explain why using data.

  1. The swing went higher with a strong push because it reached 75 cm, showing a stronger push is a bigger force that makes more motion. (correct answer)
  2. The swing went higher because it wanted to go up when the student smiled.
  3. The swing was 30 cm and 75 cm, so the numbers are different for different pushes.
  4. The swing rose 75 cm because the swing height caused the student to push harder.
Explanation: This question assesses the skill 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states what happened, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects it to force concepts, all working together for a complete answer. In this investigation, a swing rose 0 cm with no push, 30 cm gently, and 75 cm strongly, showing a pattern of higher rises with stronger pushes. The correct answer works because it includes a claim about going higher with strong push, evidence from the 75 cm height, and reasoning that a stronger push as bigger force creates more motion. The distractors fail by missing evidence, using irrelevant ideas like smiling, or reversing cause and effect without force concepts. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in explanations, modeling with examples of pushing swings or pendulums. Practice by having students connect their observations of swing heights to force concepts through playground or classroom demos.

Question 20

A book slid 2 m on smooth, 80 cm on carpet, 30 cm on rough. Explain why rough stopped first.

  1. Rough stopped first because it slid only 30 cm there, showing more friction makes a bigger stopping force. (correct answer)
  2. Rough stopped first because 2 m is shorter than 30 cm, so it could not slide far.
  3. It slid 2 m on smooth, 80 cm on carpet, and 30 cm on rough.
  4. Rough stopped first because the book was bored on the rough surface.
Explanation: The skill being assessed is 3-PS2-1: Use evidence to explain force effects. A strong explanation uses a Claim + Evidence + Reasoning structure, where the claim states the effect, evidence provides specific data, and reasoning connects them using force concepts. In this investigation, a book stopped at different distances on surfaces, showing a pattern of quickest stop on rough. The correct answer works because it claims more friction on rough causes quicker stop, provides evidence of 30 cm distance, and reasons linking friction strength to stopping force. Distractors fail by incorrect distance comparisons, irrelevance like boredom, or just listing data. To teach this, explicitly use the three-part structure in responses and model examples with surface variations. Practice by having students connect force concepts to friction observations.