State Expansion Practice Test

During the seventh and eighth centuries, Arab Muslim armies defeated the Sasanian Empire and took Byzantine provinces, but rulers then faced governing diverse populations speaking different languages and practicing multiple religions. Administrators kept some existing tax practices, minted coins, and built garrison towns, while Arabic gradually became an official language of government. Over time, caliphs used religious legitimacy and bureaucratic appointments to bind provinces to the center. Which development most directly strengthened the caliphate’s ability to rule its expanded territories?

In the thirteenth century, Mongol leaders conquered territories from China to Eastern Europe, relying on cavalry mobility, intelligence networks, and demands for tribute. After conquest, they often allowed local religions, employed existing administrators, and promoted trade by protecting routes and merchants. The empire’s rulers also used census-taking and standardized taxation to extract resources. Which practice most clearly illustrates how the Mongols consolidated authority over newly conquered regions?