19th-Century Social Reform Practice Test

A historian argues that “religious revival and reform in the nineteenth century did not simply resist modernity; it often generated new voluntary institutions,” including missions, poor relief societies, and campaigns against prostitution. The excerpt emphasizes that these initiatives relied on fundraising, newspapers, and middle-class female participation. Which characterization best captures this form of reform activity?

A historian contends that “mid-century public health reforms marked a shift from moralizing poverty to treating disease as a collective risk,” pointing to cholera epidemics, new sewer systems, and boards of health in major cities. The excerpt adds that these measures required expanding municipal authority and taxation. Which factor most directly prompted these reforms?