- What would be the most fitting title for this passage?
Answer: The Hummingbird: Nature's Tiny Flying Marvel
The passage emphasizes the hummingbird's remarkable flying abilities and characteristics, making 'The Hummingbird: Nature's Tiny Flying Marvel' the most appropriate title. Choice B focuses on pollination rather than the bird's amazing features. Choice C emphasizes nutrition rather than flight capabilities. Choice D suggests comparisons with other birds, which aren't made in the passage.
- Which title best represents the main theme of this passage?
Answer: Successfully Introducing Healthy School Lunch Options
The passage describes the successful transition from unhealthy to balanced school meals, making 'Successfully Introducing Healthy School Lunch Options' the most appropriate title. Choice B focuses only on criticizing old options rather than the positive change. Choice C is too specific and narrow. Choice D emphasizes complaints rather than the eventual success of the program.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which title best captures the essence of the passage?
Diego loves fixing broken gadgets, but he struggles in school when lessons move too fast. When he is asked to read aloud, his words come out slowly, and classmates sometimes whisper. At home, he takes apart an old radio and puts it back together with patience. He wishes school felt more like that—step by step, with time to think.
In sixth grade, a counselor suggests that Diego might have dyslexia. Diego worries the label means he is not smart, but the counselor explains it simply: his brain processes written words differently. It does not stop him from learning; it just changes the path. Diego begins working with a reading specialist who teaches him to break words into sounds and to use tools like audiobooks.
At first, the extra help feels embarrassing. Then Diego notices small victories. He finishes a chapter book, even if it takes longer than it takes his friends. He learns to ask for directions in a new way, like having instructions read aloud before a lab. Instead of hiding, he starts explaining to friends how he learns best.
Later that year, Diego joins the robotics club. He becomes the person who can spot why a motor will not turn or why a sensor gives the wrong signal. During a competition, the team's robot stops moving, and Diego stays calm. He listens, tests one part at a time, and finds a loose wire. The robot works again, and the team cheers.
Diego still practices reading, but he no longer thinks of himself as broken. He learns that challenges can come with strengths, and that the right support can change a student's future.
Answer: Finding Strength Through a Different Way of Learning
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around Diego discovering his dyslexia and learning to succeed through alternative learning methods, as illustrated by his journey from struggling reader to confident robotics club member. Choice C is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on finding strength through different learning approaches, providing an accurate summary. Choice A is incorrect because it suggests hiding struggles, while the passage shows Diego learning to openly communicate about his needs. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which of the following titles best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
In a busy hospital lab, a researcher named Dr. Nuru studies why some infections are hard to treat. Antibiotics can kill many bacteria, but over time, some bacteria change and survive. When that happens, the medicine that once worked may stop working. Dr. Nuru wants to help doctors choose treatments more wisely.
Instead of guessing, Dr. Nuru's team develops a faster test. They place a small sample of bacteria into a tray with tiny wells, each containing a different antibiotic. A special dye changes color when bacteria grow. If the dye stays the same, the antibiotic is stopping the bacteria. The goal is to see results in hours, not days.
The team tries the test on many samples and compares the answers to older methods. They find that the new test matches the older results most of the time, but it is much quicker. That speed matters. When doctors know sooner which medicine works, they can treat patients faster and avoid using antibiotics that will not help.
Dr. Nuru also explains a larger benefit. When antibiotics are used only when needed, fewer bacteria get the chance to adapt. This can slow the spread of antibiotic resistance. The test does not solve every problem, but it gives hospitals a better tool.
By improving how infections are identified and treated, the lab's work shows how careful experiments can lead to healthier communities.
Answer: A Faster Test Helps Doctors Fight Resistant Bacteria
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around Dr. Nuru's development of a faster test to identify antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as illustrated by the new testing method that provides results in hours instead of days. Choice A is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on how a faster test helps combat resistant bacteria, providing an accurate summary. Choice D is incorrect because it makes a false claim that antibiotics never work, contradicting the passage's nuanced discussion of antibiotic resistance. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Read the passage, then answer: Based on the passage below, which title is most appropriate?
In the early 1900s, many cities grow quickly. More people move in, and streets fill with horses, carts, and a new invention: the automobile. At first, cars are exciting, but they also create problems. They move faster than wagons, and there are few rules. Drivers, walkers, and bicyclists all share the same roads. Accidents rise, and so do arguments about who has the right of way.
In Cleveland, Ohio, a police officer named William Potts watches traffic jams form near busy intersections. He notices that officers cannot be everywhere at once. Whistles and hand signals help, but they depend on people paying attention. Potts thinks the streets need a clear system that tells everyone when to stop and when to go, even if a police officer is not standing nearby.
Potts studies railroad signals, which use colored lights to control trains. He adapts the idea for cars. In 1914, he helps create one of the first electric traffic lights. It uses red and green lights, and later adds yellow to warn drivers that a change is coming. The goal is not to punish drivers but to guide them, making busy roads safer and smoother.
Other cities notice the improvement. When drivers know what to expect, they brake less suddenly and argue less at intersections. Over time, traffic lights spread, and rules become more consistent. The streets are still crowded, but now there is a shared language of color that helps everyone move.
Today, people may wait impatiently at red lights, but the system saves time and lives. A simple idea—using signals to organize movement—helps cities handle the rush of modern travel.
Answer: How Traffic Lights Changed Driving
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around the invention and impact of traffic lights on driving safety and flow, as illustrated by William Potts adapting railroad signals for roads in 1914. Choice B is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on how traffic lights transformed driving by reducing accidents and improving consistency. Choice A is incorrect because it focuses on a broad history of streets, a minor detail not central to the passage's main idea. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Which title best captures the exhibit's challenge to traditional museum practices?
Answer: Disturbing Display: When Museums Challenge Their Own Authority
When you encounter a title question, look for the choice that captures the passage's main theme and most significant elements. The key here is recognizing what makes this exhibit fundamentally different from traditional museum practices.
This exhibit's core challenge is that it questions the museum's own authority and traditional approaches. Dr. Patel deliberately created an experience that "disturbs as much as it displays," forcing visitors to confront uncomfortable questions about colonial perspectives and museum practices. The controversial "empty cases" and multiple perspectives explicitly challenge how museums have traditionally operated. Choice C captures this self-questioning nature perfectly—the museum is challenging its own authority and methods.
Choice A focuses too narrowly on repatriation, which is only one element (the empty cases) rather than the exhibit's broader challenge to museum practices. Choice B makes Dr. Patel the focus when the passage emphasizes the exhibit's impact on visitors and institutional practices, not the curator personally. Choice D suggests the exhibit simply presents colonial history through indigenous perspectives, but misses the deeper point about questioning museum authority itself—the exhibit challenges how museums operate, not just what perspectives they include.
The word "disturbing" in choice C directly connects to Dr. Patel's quote about museums needing to "disturb as much as they display," making it the strongest textual match.
Remember: for title questions, avoid choices that focus on minor details or individual people. Look for the option that captures the passage's central tension or most significant theme.
- What title most effectively conveys the passage's exploration of unintended technological bias?
Answer: When Machines Learn Prejudice: The Myth of Algorithmic Objectivity
When you encounter questions about selecting the best title for a passage, focus on finding the option that captures both the main topic and the author's central message or angle. A good title should reflect the passage's scope and emphasis, not just mention elements that appear in the text.
The correct answer is C because it perfectly encapsulates the passage's core exploration: how AI systems designed to be objective actually perpetuate bias. The phrase "When Machines Learn Prejudice" captures the central irony that algorithms absorb historical biases from their training data, while "The Myth of Algorithmic Objectivity" directly addresses the passage's main argument that supposed neutrality in technology is often illusory.
Choice A focuses too narrowly on Dr. Williams as an individual, when she's actually just the vehicle for discovering a much broader systemic issue. Choice B suggests AI is simply a "failure" in HR, missing the nuanced discussion about whether the technology can be improved or should be abandoned entirely. Choice D emphasizes historical hiring discrimination, but the passage's real focus is on how modern AI systems unexpectedly perpetuate those past practices—the historical aspect is background context, not the main story.
For title questions on the SSAT, eliminate options that are either too narrow (focusing on just one detail) or too broad (missing the author's specific angle). The best titles capture both what the passage discusses and the particular perspective or argument the author presents about that topic.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which of the following titles best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
Amara volunteers at an animal shelter every Saturday. One afternoon, a scruffy dog named Pepper arrives. Pepper barks at everyone and refuses to be touched. Some volunteers decide Pepper is simply mean. Amara is not so sure.
She asks the shelter manager about Pepper's past. The manager explains that Pepper was found alone and may have been frightened for a long time. Amara decides to be patient. She sits outside Pepper's kennel and reads a book out loud in a calm voice.
At first, Pepper keeps barking. After several visits, Pepper begins to listen. Amara tosses small treats gently, without reaching in. Pepper steps closer, then backs away. Amara does not rush. She lets Pepper choose the pace.
Weeks later, Pepper allows Amara to clip on a leash. The first walk is short, but it happens. Pepper's barking fades, replaced by cautious curiosity. Eventually, Pepper is adopted by a family that understands the need for time and kindness.
Amara learns that behavior often has a reason. Sometimes the best way to help is to stay calm and keep showing up.
Answer: Patience Helps a Frightened Dog Trust Again
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around patience helping a scared dog regain trust, as illustrated by Amara reading calmly and gradually earning Pepper's confidence. Choice A is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on patience with a frightened dog, providing an accurate summary. Choice B is incorrect because it focuses on loud dogs, a minor detail not central to the passage's main idea. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which title best captures the essence of the passage?
Dr. Chien-Shiung Wu grows up in China loving science and school. Her parents open a school for girls, which is unusual at the time, and they encourage her to ask questions. Wu studies hard and later travels to the United States to continue her education in physics.
Physics can be challenging, and Wu faces more than difficult homework. Some people doubt that a woman can succeed in advanced science. Wu responds by focusing on careful experiments. She becomes known for her skill in the laboratory, where she measures tiny changes and checks results again and again.
During the mid-1900s, scientists debate how certain particles behave. Wu helps test an important idea by designing an experiment that requires extreme precision and low temperatures. Her work provides strong evidence that changes how scientists understand the rules of nature.
Wu also teaches and mentors students. She expects them to be accurate, but she also wants them to be brave enough to explore new ideas. Her career shows that talent grows with effort and opportunity.
Wu's legacy is not just in scientific results. It is in her example of determination and careful thinking.
Answer: A Physicist's Determination and Precision
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around Dr. Chien-Shiung Wu's perseverance and precision in physics, as illustrated by her precise experiments that changed scientific understanding. Choice A is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on a physicist's determination and precision, providing an accurate summary. Choice C is incorrect because it focuses on school being easier for boys, a misleading aspect not central to the passage's main idea. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which of the following would make the most suitable title for this passage?
In the desert town of Al Zahra, mornings begin with the smell of bread. Before the sun grows too hot, families visit the market. Vendors call out prices, and neighbors stop to talk. Yet the busiest place is a long table near the center, where people gather with small cups.
The cups hold mint tea, poured from a silver pot held high. The tea maker lifts the pot so the stream of tea cools as it falls. The motion looks like a tiny waterfall. Guests often receive three pours. The first tastes strong, the second feels balanced, and the third is the sweetest.
Tea is not only a drink. It is a way to show respect. When someone new arrives in town, neighbors may invite them for tea before asking many questions. During celebrations, tea is served with dates or nuts. Even during ordinary days, a shared cup can turn a short meeting into a friendly conversation.
Young people learn the custom by watching their elders. They practice pouring without spilling and remember to offer the best seat to guests. The tradition teaches patience, generosity, and attention to others.
In Al Zahra, mint tea is a simple mixture of leaves, sugar, and water. Still, it carries the deeper flavor of community.
Answer: Mint Tea and the Art of Welcome
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around mint tea as a symbol of hospitality and community in a desert town, as illustrated by the ritual of pouring tea in three stages to welcome guests. Choice B is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on mint tea and the art of welcome, providing an accurate summary. Choice A is incorrect because it focuses on hot summer days, a minor detail not central to the passage's main idea. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Which title best represents the main idea of this passage?
Answer: Community Effort Preserves Historic Lighthouse from Demolition
The passage focuses on the community's successful fight to save their historic lighthouse, making 'Community Effort Preserves Historic Lighthouse from Demolition' the most fitting title. Choice B emphasizes technology rather than preservation efforts. Choice C focuses on government policy rather than community activism. Choice D emphasizes museum design rather than the preservation campaign that made it possible.
- What title most accurately captures the passage's paradoxical theme?
Answer: Tradition Meets Innovation: Redefining Cultural Survival
When you encounter a question asking for a title that captures a "paradoxical theme," look for the central tension or contradiction the passage explores. This passage presents the seeming contradiction between preserving ancient languages and embracing modern technology.
The correct answer is B because it perfectly captures the passage's core paradox: traditional cultures aren't abandoning their heritage to survive in the modern world, but instead are using innovation to strengthen tradition. The passage emphasizes how communities "reject the either-or mentality" between tradition and modernity, proving "the future doesn't require abandoning the past." The word "redefining" in option B captures this fresh approach to cultural survival.
Answer A focuses only on the preservation aspect without acknowledging the paradoxical relationship between old and new. It treats technology as simply a tool, missing the deeper theme about reimagining tradition's role in modernity.
Answer C emphasizes the problem (linguistic extinction) and the communities involved, but completely ignores the innovative solutions and the paradoxical theme. It sounds like a straightforward news headline rather than capturing the passage's nuanced argument.
Answer D mentions the technological tools but frames them as "solutions for problems," which oversimplifies the relationship. The passage isn't just about solving problems—it's about fundamentally rethinking how tradition and innovation can coexist.
For SSAT reading questions about themes, pay attention to qualifying words like "paradoxical," "ironic," or "unexpected." These signal that you should look for contradictions, tensions, or surprising relationships rather than straightforward cause-and-effect or problem-solution patterns.
- Read the passage, then answer: Based on the passage, which title is most appropriate?
In the spring of 1775, tension fills the air in the Massachusetts countryside. Many colonists feel that British laws and taxes are unfair, and they worry that their voices do not matter. Town meetings grow crowded, and riders carry news quickly from village to village. Some people still hope for peace, but others begin storing supplies and practicing with local militias.
One night, a group of British soldiers marches quietly from Boston toward Concord. Their goal is to seize weapons and gunpowder that colonists have been collecting. Word of the march spreads, and local riders warn communities along the road. Families wake up, church bells ring, and farmers leave their fields to gather with neighbors. The colonists do not all agree on what should happen, but they agree they must be ready.
At Lexington, the two sides face each other on the town green. No one is sure who fires first, yet the moment changes everything. After the brief clash, the British continue toward Concord, where more fighting breaks out near a bridge. The colonists use the land they know well, moving behind trees and stone walls. Instead of standing in one open line, they spread out and strike quickly.
On the long return to Boston, the British troops are tired and surprised by constant attacks. More militia members join as the day goes on, and the road becomes dangerous. By evening, news of the fighting reaches far beyond Massachusetts. People who had been undecided now choose sides, and leaders begin talking about a larger struggle.
These early battles do not settle the conflict, but they show that the colonists will resist with force if needed. The events start a chain reaction: more colonies prepare, more meetings are held, and the idea of independence grows stronger. What begins as a secret march becomes the opening chapter of a revolution.
Answer: A Secret March Sparks a Revolution
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around the secret British march to Concord and how it sparked the beginning of the American Revolution, as illustrated by the fighting at Lexington and Concord that changed everything. Choice A is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on how a secret military operation led to revolutionary conflict, providing an accurate summary. Choice B is incorrect because it focuses on daily life, which is not mentioned in the passage about military conflict. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Which title best captures the main idea of this passage?
Answer: The Octopus: Master of Ocean Camouflage
The passage emphasizes the octopus's remarkable abilities, particularly its camouflage skills, making 'The Octopus: Master of Ocean Camouflage' the most appropriate title. Choice B focuses too narrowly on scientific methods. Choice C is too broad and doesn't specifically highlight octopus abilities. Choice D concentrates on only one aspect mentioned in the passage.
- Read the passage, then answer: Based on the passage, which title is most appropriate?
On a foggy morning in 1903, two brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, prepare a strange machine on the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk. Many people believe powered flight is impossible or too dangerous. The brothers are not famous scientists, but they are careful builders who run a bicycle shop. They think that if bicycles can balance and steer, a flying machine must also be controlled.
For years, the brothers test kites and gliders. They keep detailed notes about wind, wing shape, and balance. When their gliders do not behave as expected, they do not blame luck. They change one part at a time, building their own wind tunnel to measure how air moves over small wing models. Their work helps them design wings that lift better.
The hardest challenge is control. A plane must not only rise but also turn and stay steady. The brothers create a system that twists the wings slightly to help the aircraft roll. They add a movable rudder for steering and an elevator for pitch. These parts work together like a coordinated set of tools.
At last, they attach an engine and propellers they design themselves. On December 17, Orville lies on the machine and starts the motor. The aircraft moves along a track and lifts into the air for a few seconds. It is short, but it is real. Later that day, they fly again, improving each time.
Their success comes from patience, testing, and the belief that control matters as much as power. The world soon changes as flight becomes possible for travel, rescue, and exploration.
Answer: Careful Testing Leads to the First Powered Flight
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around the Wright brothers' methodical testing and experimentation that led to the first powered flight, as illustrated by their years of careful research, wind tunnel tests, and successful flight at Kitty Hawk. Choice C is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on how careful testing led to powered flight, providing an accurate summary. Choice A is incorrect because it focuses on a bicycle shop becoming a toy store, which completely misrepresents the passage's content about aviation pioneers. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- What would be the most fitting title for this passage?
Answer: Teenagers Preserve a Community Lighthouse Tradition
The passage focuses on how teenagers stepped up to maintain the lighthouse and preserve its tradition, making 'Teenagers Preserve a Community Lighthouse Tradition' the best title. Choice A emphasizes technology rather than community involvement. Choice C doesn't reflect the story's focus on volunteer preservation efforts. Choice D mentions tourism only briefly and misses the main theme.
- Which title best captures the main focus of this passage?
Answer: The First Powered Flight in Aviation History
The passage centers on the Wright brothers' achievement of the first powered flight, making 'The First Powered Flight in Aviation History' the most appropriate title. Choice B focuses too narrowly on their childhood rather than their historic achievement. Choice C is too broad, as the passage only discusses aviation. Choice D is too vague and doesn't capture the significance of their accomplishment.
- What would be the most appropriate title for this passage?
Answer: Innovative Irrigation Technology Saves Drought-Stricken Farms
The passage emphasizes how new irrigation technology solved the drought crisis for farmers, making 'Innovative Irrigation Technology Saves Drought-Stricken Farms' the best title. Choice B focuses on drought causes rather than solutions. Choice C emphasizes the person rather than the technological breakthrough. Choice D discusses traditional methods rather than the innovative solution described.
- Read the passage, then answer: Which of the following titles best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
In the 1800s, doctors want to understand why some patients recover after surgery while others become dangerously sick. Many hospitals are crowded, and cleanliness is not a major concern. Surgeons may move from one patient to another without washing their hands, because germs are not yet widely understood.
A doctor named Ignaz Semmelweis works in a hospital where many new mothers develop a severe fever. He notices that the fever is more common in one clinic than another. Searching for a cause, he compares routines. In one clinic, doctors often come directly from examining bodies after death. In the other, midwives do not.
Semmelweis proposes a simple change: doctors should wash their hands with a strong cleaning solution before treating patients. At first, some doctors resist. They dislike being told their habits are harmful. But when handwashing is required, the number of deaths drops sharply.
Even with this evidence, Semmelweis struggles to convince everyone. Years later, as germ science grows, his idea becomes a basic rule of medicine.
The story shows how careful observation can lead to a life-saving practice, even when others doubt it.
Answer: A Doctor Proves the Value of Handwashing
This question tests SSAT middle-level skills in choosing the best title for a passage, focusing on understanding themes and main ideas. A good title captures the essence of the passage, summarizing its main idea or theme concisely. It's important to distinguish between major themes and minor details. In this passage, the central theme revolves around Ignaz Semmelweis proving the importance of handwashing, as illustrated by reduced deaths after implementing cleaning routines. Choice A is correct because it succinctly encapsulates the passage's focus on a doctor proving handwashing's value, providing an accurate summary. Choice D is incorrect because it focuses on cleanliness not mattering, a misleading aspect not central to the passage's main idea. To help students: Encourage them to identify key themes before considering title options. Practice summarizing passages in a single sentence to refine title selection skills. Teach them to avoid choosing titles based on interesting details that don't capture the main theme.
- Which title best captures the main focus of this passage?
Answer: Quick Thinking Leads to Unexpected Competition Success
The passage emphasizes how the team's ability to adapt quickly led to recognition despite technical problems, making 'Quick Thinking Leads to Unexpected Competition Success' the most suitable title. Choice B focuses on technical details rather than problem-solving. Choice C emphasizes organization rather than the team's achievement. Choice D focuses on preparation rather than the adaptation and innovation described.
