Hazardous And Nonhazardous Drugs - NAPLEX

SECTION 1

Historical Context & Motivation

The distinction between hazardous drugs and nonhazardous drugs emerged from growing evidence that occupational exposure to certain pharmaceutical agents could cause serious health effects in healthcare workers, including cancer, reproductive toxicity, and organ damage. For decades, pharmacists and nurses handled potent antineoplastic agents with little more than standard gloves, unaware that aerosolized particles and dermal contact posed cumulative risks. The evolution of handling standards reflects a broader shift in pharmacy practice from product-focused dispensing to a safety-centered medication use process, where worker protection is considered inseparable from patient care.

1979 • Falck Study on Mutagenicity

Falck and colleagues published landmark research demonstrating that nurses who handled cytotoxic drugs had mutagenic substances in their urine, providing the first concrete evidence of occupational absorption and prompting calls for protective measures.

1986 • OSHA Technical Manual Guidelines

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) released guidelines for handling cytotoxic drugs in the workplace, establishing the first federal framework for safe handling procedures including biological safety cabinets and personal protective equipment.

2004 • NIOSH Hazardous Drug List Established

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) published its first Alert on hazardous drugs in healthcare settings, creating a definitive list of hazardous drugs and categorizing them into three groups based on their mechanism of toxicity.

2016 • USP <800> Published

The United States Pharmacopeia published General Chapter <800>, Hazardous Drugs—Handling in Healthcare Settings, establishing enforceable standards for receipt, storage, compounding, dispensing, administration, and disposal of hazardous drugs.

2020 • NIOSH List Updates & USP <800> Implementation

NIOSH continued to update its hazardous drug list while state boards of pharmacy began enforcing USP <800> compliance, making hazardous drug handling standards a regulatory requirement rather than a voluntary guideline across most jurisdictions.

The central question that drives this classification system is both practical and ethical: how should pharmacy professionals identify which drugs require specialized handling to protect themselves, their colleagues, and patients from inadvertent exposure, and what are the precise procedures that differentiate hazardous from nonhazardous drug management throughout every stage of the medication use process?

SECTION 2

Core Principles & Definitions

A drug is classified as hazardous if it exhibits one or more of six specific characteristics identified by NIOSH: carcinogenicity, teratogenicity or developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity, organ toxicity at low doses, genotoxicity, or structure/toxicity profile mimicking existing hazardous drugs. Nonhazardous drugs, by contrast, do not meet any of these criteria and can be handled using standard pharmacy procedures without specialized engineering controls or additional personal protective equipment beyond routine practice.

NIOSH Group 1: Antineoplastic Agents

Drugs that are primarily used to treat cancer by disrupting cell division or inducing apoptosis. These include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, and mitotic inhibitors. They carry the highest risk of occupational harm and require the most stringent handling procedures.

NIOSH Group 2: Non-Antineoplastic Hazardous Drugs

Drugs that are not antineoplastics but meet one or more NIOSH hazardous criteria. Examples include certain hormones (e.g., estradiol, testosterone), immunosuppressants (e.g., mycophenolate, tacrolimus), antivirals (e.g., ribavirin, ganciclovir), and biologics. These require hazardous handling precautions.

NIOSH Group 3: Reproductive Hazards

Drugs that primarily pose reproductive risk. These agents may not be carcinogenic or genotoxic but can adversely affect fertility, cause fetal harm, or disrupt normal reproductive function. Handling precautions focus on preventing exposure in workers of reproductive potential.

Assessment of New Drugs

Each healthcare facility must maintain its own hazardous drug list and perform an Assessment of Risk for any drug not on the NIOSH list. New drugs entering the formulary are evaluated using the six NIOSH criteria, Safety Data Sheets, and manufacturer labeling to determine classification.

USP <800> Compliance Framework

USP <800> provides enforceable standards encompassing every step of drug handling: receipt, storage, compounding, dispensing, administration, and disposal. It mandates engineering controls (e.g., C-PECs, C-SECs), PPE, training, medical surveillance, and spill management for hazardous drugs.

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KEY TAKEAWAY

Think of hazardous drug classification like the tiered biohazard system in a microbiology lab: just as BSL-1 organisms can be handled on an open bench while BSL-3 pathogens require sealed cabinets, negative-pressure rooms, and specialized PPE, nonhazardous drugs follow standard pharmacy workflow while hazardous drugs demand escalating layers of engineering controls and protective equipment. The classification itself dictates the entire infrastructure around the drug—from the moment it arrives at the loading dock to the moment it is disposed of as pharmaceutical waste.

SECTION 3

Visual Classification Framework

This diagram illustrates the four-tier classification system for drugs in healthcare settings. Groups 1, 2, and 3 represent hazardous drugs with escalating or specific handling requirements, while the bottom tier (N) represents nonhazardous drugs that follow standard procedures. Note how engineering controls and PPE requirements increase with the severity of hazard classification.

As depicted in the diagram, the classification scheme establishes a hierarchical framework where the nature and severity of the hazard determine the corresponding handling requirements. Group 1 antineoplastic agents demand the most rigorous controls because their mechanism of action—disrupting DNA replication, inhibiting cell division, or inducing programmed cell death—inherently poses threats to any rapidly dividing cell, not just tumor cells. Group 2 agents are therapeutically diverse but share at least one of the six NIOSH hazardous criteria, requiring a risk-based approach to handling. Group 3 drugs represent a special category where reproductive toxicity is the primary concern, allowing facilities to tailor controls specifically toward protecting workers of childbearing potential. The nonhazardous tier encompasses the majority of medications in a typical pharmacy formulary and follows conventional USP <795> and <797> standards without requiring the specialized infrastructure mandated by USP <800>.

SECTION 4

Handling Mechanisms & Engineering Controls

The handling of hazardous drugs under USP <800> operates on a principle of hierarchy of controls, a concept borrowed from occupational safety engineering. The most effective controls are engineering-based, which physically separate the worker from the hazard, followed by administrative controls (policies, training, medical surveillance), and finally personal protective equipment (PPE) as the last line of defense. Unlike nonhazardous drug compounding, which can occur in standard pharmacy settings, hazardous drug compounding requires containment primary engineering controls (C-PECs) placed within containment secondary engineering controls (C-SECs) that maintain specific air quality and pressure relationships.

Engineering Controls for Hazardous Drugs

Control Type	Description	Examples
C-PEC (Containment Primary)	Ventilated device providing operator protection by directing airflow away from the worker; specific type depends on drug form (sterile vs. nonsterile)	Class II BSC (Type B2), CACI (Compounding Aseptic Containment Isolator), CVE (Containment Ventilated Enclosure for nonsterile)
C-SEC (Containment Secondary)	Room or area with fixed walls, negative pressure relative to surrounding areas (minimum 0.01 inch water column), HEPA-filtered supply air, and minimum 12 ACPH for sterile HD compounding	Negative-pressure hazardous drug compounding room (sterile), externally vented room with negative pressure (nonsterile)
CSTDs	Closed-System Transfer Devices mechanically prevent the escape of hazardous drug vapor or aerosol during transfer between containers; used as supplemental engineering control	PhaSeal, Equashield, ChemoClave — must meet NIOSH protocol for device testing
Supplemental Controls	Additional measures to reduce surface contamination and exposure, including plastic-backed absorbent pads, needle-free systems, and proper waste segregation containers	Luer-lock connections, chemo mats, yellow chemotherapy waste containers, spill kits

Engineering controls required for hazardous drug handling under USP <800>

PPE Requirements by Drug Category

Personal protective equipment requirements differ substantially between hazardous and nonhazardous drug handling. For antineoplastic hazardous drugs, workers must don double chemotherapy-tested gloves (ASTM D6978 tested), a protective gown that is disposable, lint-free, and made of low-permeability fabric with closed front and tight-fitting cuffs, and eye/face protection when there is a risk of splash. During compounding, a hair cover and shoe covers are also required. For nonhazardous drug handling, standard pharmacy gloves and clean garb suffice, with no requirement for chemotherapy-rated materials. This distinction has significant cost and workflow implications that institutions must plan for in their standard operating procedures.

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NAPLEX PEARL

A common exam scenario presents a pharmacist receiving a new drug not yet on the NIOSH list. Remember: USP <800> requires facilities to perform an Assessment of Risk (AoR) for every drug entering the formulary. Consult the SDS, manufacturer labeling, and clinical literature. If any of the six NIOSH criteria are met, the drug must be handled as hazardous until formally reclassified.

SECTION 5

Hazardous Drug Lifecycle: Receipt Through Disposal

The hazardous drug lifecycle flowchart traces a hazardous drug from receipt through disposal, showing how each stage requires specific containment and PPE measures. The bottom panel highlights continuous requirements (training, medical surveillance, spill management, documentation) that apply across all stages. Nonhazardous drugs, by contrast, follow a streamlined path without these specialized containment requirements.

Stage-by-Stage Handling Differences

At receipt, hazardous drugs must be unpacked in a designated area separate from other inventory, with personnel wearing appropriate PPE; damaged or leaking containers must be immediately managed using the facility's spill protocol. Storage requires physical separation from nonhazardous inventory, with signage identifying hazardous drug storage areas and, ideally, negative-pressure ventilation to prevent contamination spread. During compounding, hazardous sterile preparations must be made in an ISO Class 5 C-PEC located within an ISO Class 7 negative-pressure C-SEC with externally vented HEPA-filtered air—a requirement that does not apply to nonhazardous sterile compounding under USP <797>. Administration of hazardous drugs to patients requires nurses to wear chemotherapy gloves and gowns, with CSTDs recommended for parenteral formulations. Finally, disposal follows EPA and state-specific regulations, with hazardous drug waste categorized as either RCRA-listed hazardous waste (requiring manifested disposal by a licensed transporter) or trace contaminated items (disposed of in designated yellow chemotherapy waste containers).

SECTION 6

Worked Example: Classifying a New Formulary Addition

Scenario: A hospital pharmacy adds lenalidomide to its formulary

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Step 1 — Identify Drug Characteristics

Lenalidomide (Revlimid) is an immunomodulatory agent used to treat multiple myeloma and myelodysplastic syndromes. Begin by consulting the current NIOSH List of Hazardous Drugs, the drug's Safety Data Sheet (SDS), and the manufacturer's prescribing information. The SDS indicates that lenalidomide is a known human teratogen (Pregnancy Category X equivalent, with an FDA black box warning and REMS program) and is structurally related to thalidomide, which is a known teratogen and suspected carcinogen.

Lenalidomide meets at least two NIOSH criteria: teratogenicity and structural similarity to a known hazardous drug (thalidomide).
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Step 2 — Check NIOSH List Classification

Cross-reference the drug against the most current NIOSH Hazardous Drug List. Lenalidomide appears on the NIOSH list as a Group 1 agent (antineoplastic). This classification is consistent with its mechanism of action—immunomodulation with direct antiproliferative effects on tumor cells—and its toxicity profile including teratogenicity, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia.

NIOSH Classification: Group 1 (Antineoplastic)
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Step 3 — Determine Required Engineering Controls

As a Group 1 antineoplastic hazardous drug, any compounding of lenalidomide requires a C-PEC placed within a C-SEC. However, lenalidomide is commercially available as an oral capsule. If the pharmacy is dispensing the intact dosage form without manipulation (e.g., not opening capsules for dose adjustment or compounding an oral suspension), USP <800> allows for an Alternative Containment Strategy per the facility's Assessment of Risk. Intact dosage forms that are not altered may be handled with a single pair of chemotherapy gloves during dispensing, provided the facility documents this in its standard operating procedures.

Dispensing intact capsules: chemotherapy gloves required; full C-PEC/C-SEC not required if no manipulation. If capsules must be opened or compounded: full hazardous drug compounding controls apply.
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Step 4 — Establish PPE, Storage, and Disposal Protocols

Storage: lenalidomide must be stored in a separate, designated hazardous drug storage area with appropriate signage. PPE for dispensing intact capsules: single pair of ASTM D6978-tested chemotherapy gloves. PPE for any manipulation/compounding: double chemotherapy gloves, protective gown, eye/face protection, and respirator if not using a C-PEC. Disposal: unused capsules and contaminated materials go into yellow chemotherapy waste containers. Any bulk waste (e.g., large quantity of expired stock) requires evaluation as potential RCRA hazardous waste.

Complete protocol established: hazardous storage area → chemotherapy gloves for dispensing → full PPE suite if compounding → yellow chemotherapy waste disposal
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Step 5 — Document and Train Staff

The pharmacy must update its facility-specific hazardous drug list to include lenalidomide, document the Assessment of Risk, establish a written SOP for handling, and ensure all personnel who may handle the drug receive initial training and demonstrate competency before handling it. Medical surveillance must include baseline health assessment for any worker who will regularly handle lenalidomide, with periodic follow-up. The REMS program (Revlimid REMS) adds additional dispensing requirements including patient enrollment verification.

Lenalidomide fully integrated into facility's hazardous drug program with documentation, training, medical surveillance, and REMS compliance.

SECTION 7

Hazardous vs. Nonhazardous Drug Handling: Key Differences

Parameter	Hazardous Drug	Nonhazardous Drug
Primary Standard	USP <800> (plus USP <797> for sterile, <795> for nonsterile)	USP <797> (sterile) or USP <795> (nonsterile)
Primary Engineering Control	C-PEC (BSC Class II Type B2 or CACI for sterile; CVE for nonsterile)	PEC (LAFW or CAI for sterile; no required PEC for nonsterile)
Secondary Engineering Control	C-SEC with negative pressure (≥ 0.01 in. w.c.), externally vented, ≥ 12 ACPH (sterile)	SEC with positive pressure for sterile compounding; no special room for nonsterile
Gloves	ASTM D6978-tested chemotherapy gloves; double gloving for compounding	Standard sterile or nonsterile gloves
Gown	Disposable, lint-free, low-permeability, closed-front with tight cuffs	Clean, low-particulate garb for sterile compounding
Storage	Separate designated area with hazardous drug signage; negative pressure preferred	Standard pharmacy shelving per manufacturer specifications
Waste Disposal	Yellow chemotherapy waste containers; RCRA evaluation for P- and U-listed wastes	Standard pharmaceutical waste; may be disposed per state/local regulations
Medical Surveillance	Required: baseline assessment, periodic monitoring, exposure incident follow-up	Not specifically required beyond standard occupational health
Spill Management	Dedicated spill kits in all HD areas; specific deactivation/decontamination agents	Standard cleanup procedures

Comprehensive comparison of handling requirements for hazardous vs. nonhazardous drugs

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KEY TAKEAWAY

The difference between hazardous and nonhazardous drug handling is analogous to the difference between a laboratory studying radioactive isotopes and one studying table salt. Both require good laboratory practice, cleanliness, and professionalism, but the radioactive lab demands specialized shielding, dosimeters, decontamination stations, and regulatory oversight that would be unnecessary and wasteful in the salt lab. Similarly, applying USP <800> controls to a nonhazardous drug like amoxicillin would impose unnecessary cost and complexity, while failing to apply them to cyclophosphamide could result in preventable occupational illness.

SECTION 8

Evolving Standards & Advanced Considerations

The landscape of hazardous drug regulation continues to evolve as new therapeutic agents enter the market and our understanding of occupational exposure deepens. Several advanced concepts are critical for pharmacists preparing for practice and for the NAPLEX examination. The intersection of USP <800> with USP <797> (sterile compounding) and USP <795> (nonsterile compounding) creates a complex regulatory matrix where compliance with one standard does not guarantee compliance with another.

Current Framework	Emerging/Advanced Considerations
NIOSH list updated periodically with new drugs	Targeted therapies (e.g., kinase inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies) challenge traditional classification because many are oral agents with potent mechanisms but uncertain occupational risk profiles
Facility-level Assessment of Risk for unlisted drugs	Pharmacogenomics may eventually inform individualized risk assessments for healthcare workers based on genetic susceptibility to specific drug classes
CSTDs as supplemental engineering controls	Robotic and automated compounding systems (e.g., IV robots) may reduce human exposure but raise questions about validation, cleaning, and cross-contamination
Surface wipe sampling for contamination monitoring	Real-time environmental monitoring and biological exposure indices (urinary biomarkers for cyclophosphamide, platinum compounds) may become standard practice
Binary hazardous/nonhazardous classification	Future frameworks may adopt a risk-continuum model with more granular tiers, particularly for biosimilars, gene therapies, and radioactive pharmaceuticals

Current vs. emerging approaches to hazardous drug management

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CLINICAL INTEGRATION

As a pharmacist, you serve as the medication safety expert in your institution. When a new biologic or targeted therapy is added to the formulary—say, a newly approved CAR-T cell therapy or an antibody-drug conjugate like trastuzumab emtansine (T-DM1)—the pharmacy department must proactively assess whether the agent meets NIOSH hazardous criteria. Antibody-drug conjugates are particularly challenging because the cytotoxic payload (e.g., DM1, MMAE) meets hazardous criteria, but the intact conjugate may have different exposure risks than traditional cytotoxics. This requires sophisticated risk analysis that goes beyond simply checking a list.

SECTION 9

Practice Problems

Question 1: CONCEPTUAL

A pharmacy student asks why methotrexate requires hazardous drug handling when it is commonly used at low doses for rheumatoid arthritis—a non-oncologic indication. What is the most accurate explanation?

Show answer

Hazardous drug classification under NIOSH and USP <800> is based on the intrinsic properties of the drug, not its therapeutic indication or dose. Methotrexate is classified as a NIOSH Group 1 antineoplastic agent because it is a folate antagonist that inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, disrupting DNA synthesis. These properties—carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and genotoxicity—exist regardless of whether the drug is prescribed for cancer or for autoimmune disease. The occupational hazard to the healthcare worker handling the drug remains the same whether the patient is receiving 7.5 mg weekly for RA or 3.5 g/m² for osteosarcoma, because the worker's exposure is to the drug itself during handling, not to the patient's therapeutic dose.

Question 2: BASIC CALCULATION

A hospital pharmacy compounds hazardous sterile preparations in a C-SEC that measures 12 feet × 10 feet × 9 feet (ceiling height). USP <800> requires a minimum of 12 air changes per hour (ACPH) for sterile hazardous drug compounding rooms. Calculate the minimum required airflow rate in cubic feet per minute (CFM) for this room.

Show answer

First, calculate the room volume: 12 ft × 10 ft × 9 ft = 1,080 ft³. The minimum ACPH is 12, meaning the entire volume of air must be replaced 12 times each hour. Total air volume per hour = 1,080 ft³ × 12 = 12,960 ft³/hour. To convert to CFM: 12,960 ft³/hour ÷ 60 minutes/hour = 216 CFM. The HVAC system must supply at least 216 CFM of HEPA-filtered air to meet USP <800> requirements. In practice, the system is typically designed with a safety margin (e.g., 10–20% above minimum) to account for duct losses and ensure consistent negative pressure.

Question 3: INTERMEDIATE

A community pharmacy receives a prescription for temozolomide 20 mg capsules for a patient with glioblastoma. The pharmacy does not have a C-PEC or C-SEC. The pharmacist needs to determine whether the pharmacy can legally dispense this medication and, if so, what handling precautions are required. Outline the correct approach.

Show answer

Temozolomide is a NIOSH Group 1 antineoplastic hazardous drug. However, the prescription calls for dispensing an intact, commercially manufactured dosage form (capsules) without any compounding or manipulation. Under USP <800>, intact dosage forms of hazardous drugs may be dispensed without a C-PEC or C-SEC, provided the facility has performed an Assessment of Risk and the dosage form is not altered (not cut, crushed, or opened). The pharmacy must: (1) maintain temozolomide on its facility-specific hazardous drug list; (2) store it in a designated area separate from nonhazardous inventory with appropriate signage; (3) require personnel to wear at least one pair of ASTM D6978-tested chemotherapy gloves when counting and handling the capsules; (4) have a spill kit available; and (5) dispose of any waste (e.g., damaged capsules, contaminated gloves) in appropriate hazardous drug waste containers. The pharmacist may legally dispense this prescription without a C-PEC/C-SEC under these conditions.

Question 4: APPLIED

A hospital pharmacy technician is compounding a cyclophosphamide 500 mg IV infusion in a Class II Biological Safety Cabinet. During preparation, the technician accidentally punctures the IV bag with a needle, spilling approximately 30 mL of cyclophosphamide solution onto the work surface of the BSC. Describe the step-by-step procedure the technician should follow, including what to do with the compromised preparation and how to document the incident.

Show answer

The technician should follow the facility's written hazardous drug spill management SOP. Immediate steps: (1) Keep the BSC running—do NOT turn it off, as airflow contains vapor and aerosol within the cabinet. (2) While wearing current double chemotherapy gloves and gown, apply absorbent chemotherapy spill pads (available in the spill kit) over the liquid to prevent spread. (3) Carefully clean from the outer edges of the spill inward, using gentle wiping motions to avoid generating aerosol. (4) Decontaminate the surface with a sodium hypochlorite solution (or facility-approved deactivating agent), followed by a neutralizing cleaner and sterile water rinse. (5) Dispose of all contaminated materials (absorbent pads, gloves, the compromised IV bag and tubing) in a yellow chemotherapy waste container. (6) Doff contaminated PPE per protocol, wash hands thoroughly, and don fresh PPE before resuming any work. (7) Complete an incident report documenting the spill volume, drug concentration, surfaces contaminated, decontamination procedure used, and time of occurrence. (8) Notify the supervisor and occupational health department. (9) The compromised preparation is discarded as hazardous waste and must be re-compounded. If the technician has any skin contact with the solution, the affected area should be washed immediately with soap and water for at least 15 minutes, and the exposure must be reported for medical surveillance follow-up.

Question 5: CRITICAL THINKING

A newly approved oral kinase inhibitor, Drug X, enters the market for the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma. It is not yet on the NIOSH Hazardous Drug List. The manufacturer's SDS indicates that Drug X is a potent inhibitor of VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase, is teratogenic in animal studies (Pregnancy Category D equivalent), and causes hepatotoxicity at therapeutic doses. It has not been tested for carcinogenicity or genotoxicity. The drug is formulated as a film-coated tablet. As the pharmacy director, how would you classify this drug, what handling procedures would you implement, and how would you justify your decision if challenged by hospital administration concerned about costs?

Show answer

This scenario requires a formal Assessment of Risk per USP <800>. Drug X meets at least two of the six NIOSH hazardous criteria: (1) teratogenicity/developmental toxicity (demonstrated in animal studies with Pregnancy Category D labeling) and (2) organ toxicity at low doses (hepatotoxicity at therapeutic doses). Additionally, as an antineoplastic agent targeting VEGF receptor kinase, it has structural and mechanistic similarity to existing hazardous drugs such as sunitinib and sorafenib, both of which are NIOSH-listed. Therefore, Drug X should be classified as hazardous and handled according to Group 1 or Group 2 requirements pending formal NIOSH evaluation. For the intact film-coated tablet, an Alternative Containment Strategy may be appropriate: single chemotherapy gloves for counting/dispensing, segregated storage with signage, and hazardous waste disposal. Full C-PEC/C-SEC controls would only be required if the tablet needs to be crushed or compounded into another dosage form. To justify costs to administration, present the risk-benefit analysis: the cost of chemotherapy gloves and segregated storage is minimal compared to potential workers' compensation claims, OSHA citations (fines up to $156,259 per willful violation), state board of pharmacy enforcement actions, and the ethical obligation to protect employees. Document the Assessment of Risk, cite USP <800> requirements and the absence of safe exposure limits for antineoplastic agents, and note that failure to comply could jeopardize the facility's accreditation.

SUMMARY

Lesson Summary

Summary

The classification of drugs as hazardous or nonhazardous is determined by six NIOSH criteria (carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, reproductive toxicity, organ toxicity at low doses, genotoxicity, and structural similarity to known hazardous agents). The NIOSH Hazardous Drug List organizes these agents into three groups: Group 1 (antineoplastics), Group 2 (non-antineoplastic hazardous drugs), and Group 3 (reproductive hazards only). USP <800> provides the enforceable regulatory framework governing every stage of hazardous drug handling, from receipt through disposal, mandating engineering controls (C-PECs, C-SECs, CSTDs), specialized PPE (chemotherapy-tested gloves and protective gowns), and comprehensive administrative controls including training, medical surveillance, and documented standard operating procedures.

Nonhazardous drugs follow standard USP <795> and <797> procedures without the specialized containment infrastructure required for hazardous agents. Every pharmacy must maintain a facility-specific hazardous drug list and perform an Assessment of Risk for new drugs not yet on the NIOSH list. The distinction between hazardous and nonhazardous drugs is fundamental to the medication use process and represents a core competency for pharmacists, impacting everything from facility design and purchasing to daily workflow, waste management, and occupational health.