Demographic Structure: Age, Gender, and Life Course (9B) - Psych & Soc

Identify the age groups typically counted as dependents in the dependency ratio.

Ages $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ . Children and elderly who typically don't work full-time.
In the DTM, which stage is characterized by falling death rates with high birth rates?

Stage $2$ (transitional/early industrial). Improved healthcare reduces deaths; births stay high.
What is the definition of net migration rate?

Immigration minus emigration, usually expressed per $1{,}000$ population. This rate quantifies migration's net effect on population change, crucial for urban planning and resource allocation.
Identify the term for the process by which older adults gradually withdraw from social roles.

Disengagement theory. Controversial theory suggesting mutual withdrawal benefits society.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

How age-graded roles and historical context shape individual trajectories. Examines timing of life events and social expectations.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial equilibrium with both rates at low levels.
What is role strain?

Stress from competing demands within a single social role. Occurs when one role has conflicting expectations.
What is the difference between sex and gender in social science terminology?

Sex is biological traits; gender is socially constructed roles/identity. Sex is chromosomes/anatomy; gender is cultural expectations.
In the DTM, which stage is marked by falling death rates while birth rates remain high?

Stage $2$ (early industrializing). Medical advances reduce mortality before fertility declines.
Identify the age groups typically counted as dependents in the dependency ratio.

Ages $0$ - $14$ and $65+$ . Non-working ages requiring economic support.
What is the dependency ratio intended to capture in demographic structure?

Relative burden of dependents compared with the working-age population. Measures economic pressure on productive population.
Which population pyramid shape is most associated with aging and low fertility?

Constrictive pyramid (narrow base, wider middle/older cohorts). Inverted shape shows declining births and population aging.
State the formula for sex ratio as males per $100$ females.

Sex ratio $=\frac{M}{F}\times 100$ . Multiplied by $100$ to express as males per $100$ females.
What is the sex ratio?

Number of males per $100$ females in a population. Calculated as $\frac{\text{males}}{\text{females}} \times 100$ .
Identify the population pyramid shape most consistent with rapid growth.

Broad base and narrow top (expansive pyramid). Many young people and high birth rates create a triangular shape.
What is dependency ratio?

Ratio of dependents (young and old) to working-age population. Measures economic burden on productive population.
What does a population pyramid with a broad base and narrow top indicate?

High fertility, youthful population, and rapid growth. Triangle shape shows many births and young dependents.
What is the definition of fertility rate as used in demographic analyses?

Number of live births per woman in a population. It measures reproductive behavior, influencing population growth and age structure in demographic models.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Model linking development to shifts in birth and death rates over time. Explains population changes through stages of birth/death rate transitions.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

High birth rate and high death rate; slow population growth. Pre-industrial societies with limited healthcare/sanitation.
What is the definition of a turning point in the life course perspective?

Major event that produces a lasting shift in life direction. Turning points disrupt established paths, often leading to significant personal growth or challenges in adaptation.
What is the definition of the life course perspective in sociology?

Approach emphasizing how age-graded roles and transitions shape lives over time. Examines timing, sequencing, and social contexts of life transitions.
What is the crude death rate (CDR)?

Annual deaths per $1{,}000$ people in a population. Standardized measure for comparing death rates.
What is the dependency ratio?

Ratio of dependents (young + old) to the working-age population. Measures economic pressure on productive age groups.
State the demographic balancing equation for population change.

$\Delta N=(B-D)+(I-E)$ . $B$ =births, $D$ =deaths, $I$ =immigration, $E$ =emigration.
What is a cohort effect?

Differences due to being born in the same time period and sharing historical context. Shared experiences create generational similarities.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate and high death rate; low population growth. Pre-industrial societies with minimal medical care and agriculture.
What is a population pyramid?

A bar graph showing age distribution by sex for a population. Visualizes population structure by age and sex simultaneously.
What is a population pyramid designed to display about a population?

Age and sex distribution across cohorts in a population. Visualizes population structure as horizontal bars by age and gender.
What is the difference between sex and gender in sociological terms?

Sex is biological; gender is socially constructed roles/identity. Sex is chromosomal; gender involves cultural expectations.
Which population pyramid shape indicates rapid growth and a high fertility rate?

Expansive pyramid with a broad base. Young populations form wide-based triangular shapes.
What is demographic transition theory (DTT)?

Model of population change with shifts in birth and death rates. Describes how societies progress through predictable fertility and mortality patterns.
What is the dependency ratio?

Ratio of dependents (young and old) to working-age population. Higher ratios indicate greater economic burden on workers.
What is total fertility rate (TFR) in demography?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have. Measures fertility levels across a population.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate and high death rate; slow population growth. Pre-industrial societies have balanced high rates, resulting in minimal growth.
Which population pyramid shape is most consistent with population decline?

Constrictive pyramid (narrow base relative to middle). Low birth rates create smaller younger cohorts than middle-aged.
What is the replacement-level fertility rate in developed countries?

Approximately $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality; maintains stable population size.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM) describing?

Changes in birth and death rates as a society industrializes. Model showing population changes during economic development.
Which term describes the unequal ratio of males to females caused by migration, war, or selection?

Skewed sex ratio (sex ratio imbalance). Demographic imbalance from selective factors affecting one sex more.
What best defines the crude death rate (CDR)?

Annual deaths per $1{,}000$ people in a population. Measures deaths relative to total population size annually.
What is an age-graded influence in the life course perspective?

Effects linked to chronological age (for example, puberty or retirement). Biological and social changes tied to specific ages.
What is the sex ratio in a population?

Number of males per number of females, often per $100$ females. Typically expressed as males per $100$ females.
What is a cohort effect?

Differences due to being born in different historical periods. Shared experiences shape generational characteristics.
What is a population pyramid designed to display about a population?

Age and sex distribution across cohorts. Visual representation of population structure by age/sex.
Which population pyramid shape indicates slow growth and an aging population?

Constrictive pyramid (narrow base, wider middle/older cohorts). Low fertility creates smaller younger cohorts.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model?

Falling birth rate with low death rate; growth slows. Urbanization and contraception reduce births as deaths stabilize.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly indicates an aging, slow-growth population?

Constrictive or rectangular shape with a narrower base. Narrow base shows low birth rates in developed countries.
What is the sex ratio in demography, and how is it commonly expressed?

Number of males per $100$ females. Standard demographic measure of gender balance.
What does the life course concept of a trajectory refer to?

Long-term pattern of stability and change across the life span. Trajectories capture cumulative experiences, illustrating how early events influence long-term health and socioeconomic status.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children born per woman over her lifetime. Key measure of population replacement potential.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly indicates slow growth and aging?

Constrictive pyramid: narrow base with relatively larger middle/older cohorts. Low birth rates create narrow base typical of aging societies.
What is the concept of intersectionality intended to capture in demographic outcomes?

Overlapping identities (e.g., gender, race, class) producing combined inequality. Intersectionality reveals how multiple social categories interact to create unique experiences of discrimination and privilege.
Identify the term for prejudice or discrimination based on age, especially toward older adults.

Ageism. Systematic stereotyping and discrimination by age.
State the formula for the dependency ratio using age groups.

Dependency ratio $=\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}$ . Compares non-working ages to working-age population.
What is meant by socialization across the life course?

Ongoing process of learning norms, roles, and behaviors at each life stage. Socialization ensures individuals adapt to evolving societal expectations, fostering continuity and change across generations.
Identify the population pyramid shape most consistent with negative growth.

Narrow base relative to middle cohorts (constrictive pyramid). Low birth rates create fewer young people than middle-aged adults.
Which population pyramid shape is most consistent with an aging population and low fertility?

Constrictive pyramid (narrow base, larger middle/older cohorts). Reflects declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy.
State the formula for rate of natural increase (RNI) using CBR and CDR.

$\frac{\text{CBR}-\text{CDR}}{10}$ (percent per year, if rates per $1000$ ). Divide by $10$ to convert from per $1000$ to percentage.
What is meant by the term "feminization of aging"?

Older age groups contain proportionally more women due to longer female life expectancy. Women outlive men, creating female-majority elderly populations.
What is the definition of the sex ratio in demography?

Number of males per $100$ females in a population. Standard demographic measure of gender balance.
State the formula for the dependency ratio using ages $0$ – $14$ , $15$ – $64$ , and $65+$ .

$\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}\times 100$ . Sums young and old dependents over working age.
What demographic pattern defines a population pyramid with a broad base and narrow top?

Rapid growth with a large proportion of young individuals. A broad base indicates high birth rates and youthful demographics, driving exponential population increase if mortality is low.
What is life expectancy at birth intended to estimate for a population?

Average number of years a newborn is expected to live. This metric reflects overall health, nutrition, and medical access, projecting future population needs.
What is the crude birth rate (CBR)?

Annual births per $1000$ people in a population. Standardized measure allowing comparison across populations.
Identify the concept: differences due to historical time period affecting all ages.

Period effects. Period effects result from widespread events like wars or recessions, uniformly impacting behaviors and outcomes across age groups.
Identify the concept: shared expectations for behavior at a given age (for example, "appropriate" milestones).

Age norms. Social rules about age-appropriate behaviors and life transitions.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate with falling death rate; rapid population growth. Improved sanitation and medicine reduce deaths while births remain high.
What is the definition of an age-graded role in the life course perspective?

Social role linked to age norms (for example, student, retiree). Society assigns different expectations based on life stage.
What does a roughly rectangular population pyramid most strongly suggest about growth?

Stable or slow growth with similar cohort sizes. Equal cohort sizes indicate replacement-level fertility.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate and high death rate; low population growth. Pre-industrial societies with limited healthcare and agriculture.
State the formula for sex ratio (males per $100$ females).

$\frac{\text{males}}{\text{females}}\times 100$ . Calculates males per 100 females for comparison.
What is a cohort effect?

Differences due to being born in the same time period. Shared experiences shape generational characteristics.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Birth rate falls; death rate low; growth slows. Urbanization and education lead to smaller family preferences.
What is the replacement-level fertility in developed countries?

About $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality to maintain stable population.
What is the difference between sex and gender in social science terms?

Sex is biological traits; gender is socially constructed roles and identities. Sex = chromosomes/anatomy; gender = cultural norms.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Model describing shifts in birth and death rates during development. Explains population changes during modernization.
State the dependency ratio formula using ages $0$ – $14$ , $15$ – $64$ , and $65+$ .

$\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}$ . Formula divides non-working ages by working-age population.
Which population pyramid shape indicates low growth and an aging population?

Constrictive/columnar pyramid with a narrow base and larger middle/older ages. Reflects declining birth rates and increased longevity.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR) in demography?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime. Key indicator of population growth potential.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial equilibrium with controlled fertility and longevity.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have. Calculated over her reproductive years, typically ages 15-49.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly suggests an aging, slow-growth population?

Narrow base with more even or top-heavy distribution. Low birth rates create smaller younger cohorts.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

Framework emphasizing how age-graded roles change across the lifespan. Examines transitions, timing, and social contexts of life events.
What is the typical sex ratio at birth in humans?

About $105$ males per $100$ females. Natural biological pattern slightly favoring male births.
What defines DTM Stage 4 (postindustrial) in terms of birth and death rates?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Characteristic of developed nations with family planning.
What is a population pyramid used to display?

Age and sex distribution of a population. Visual representation showing demographic structure.
What is a population pyramid used to display?

Age and sex distribution of a population (typically in $5$ -year cohorts). Visual representation showing population structure.
What is an age effect?

Differences attributable to biological or social processes of aging. Changes from maturation, not historical timing.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model?

Death rate drops; birth rate remains high; rapid population growth. Medical advances reduce mortality while fertility remains unchanged.
What is an age effect?

Differences attributable to biological or social processes of aging. Changes linked to maturation and life stage progression.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model?

Birth rate declines; population growth slows as deaths remain low. Urbanization and education lead to smaller family preferences.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

High birth rate and high death rate; low population growth. Pre-industrial societies with limited healthcare and agriculture.
Identify the term for unequal treatment based on age that affects life outcomes.

Ageism. Discrimination that can limit opportunities across the lifespan.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly indicates rapid growth: wide base or narrow base?

Wide base. Indicates high birth rates and young population.
What does the life course perspective emphasize about human development?

Development shaped by timing of life events and historical/social context. Recognizes that timing and context shape life trajectories.
State the formula for rate of natural increase (RNI) using CBR and CDR.

$\text{RNI} = \text{CBR} - \text{CDR}$ (per $1{,}000$ per year). Natural increase equals births minus deaths per thousand.
What is the dependency ratio?

Ratio of dependents to working-age population. Measures economic burden on productive population.
What is demographic transition theory (DTT) intended to explain about populations over time?

How birth and death rates change with industrialization and development. Links population changes to economic development stages.
What is the sex ratio, and how is it commonly expressed?

Males per females, often per $100$ females. Indicates gender balance; $>100$ means more males.
State the sex ratio formula as males per $100$ females.

$\frac{\text{males}}{\text{females}}\times 100$ . Standard demographic calculation for gender comparison.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Death rate falls while birth rate stays high; rapid growth. Better sanitation and medicine reduce deaths before births decline.
What is gender stratification in the context of demographic and social structure?

Unequal distribution of power, status, and resources by gender. Systematic inequality based on gender categories.
What is a cohort in demographic analysis?

Group sharing a common time-based life event (for example, birth year). Used to track generational patterns and life course effects.
Which population pyramid shape is most associated with rapid growth?

Expansive pyramid (broad base, narrow top). Triangle shape indicates high fertility and young population.
State the formula for the dependency ratio.

$\frac{\text{pop}(0\text{–}14)+\text{pop}(65+)}{\text{pop}(15\text{–}64)}$ . Dependents divided by working-age population.
What is the life course perspective?

View that lives are shaped by timing of events, linked lives, and historical context. Framework emphasizing interconnected lives across time.
What is age stratification?

Social organization into age-based groups with differing roles/status. Creates age-based hierarchies and expectations in society.
Which population pyramid shape indicates rapid growth and high fertility?

Expansive pyramid with a broad base and narrow top. Young population with many births and fewer elderly survivors.
What is the definition of an age cohort in demography?

Group of people born in the same time period who age through life together. Shares common historical experiences and aging patterns.
What does the life course concept of a transition refer to?

Change in roles or statuses, such as marriage, parenthood, or retirement. Transitions mark key life stages, shaping personal development and social integration within the life course framework.
What is the epidemiologic transition?

Shift from infectious to chronic/degenerative disease as main mortality causes. Parallels demographic transition as disease patterns change with development.
What is the crude birth rate (CBR)?

Annual live births per $1{,}000$ people in a population. Standardized measure for comparing birth rates.
What is a population pyramid used to display?

Age and sex distribution of a population across cohorts. Shape reveals growth patterns and demographic trends.
What is the definition of a cohort in life course and demographic analysis?

Group of people who experience the same event in the same time period. Often birth cohorts sharing common experiences.
What is a cohort in demographic and life course analysis?

Group of people sharing a common time-based experience (for example, birth year). Allows tracking of shared experiences across the lifespan.
What is the replacement fertility rate in developed countries?

About $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality; maintains stable population size.
What is demographic transition theory (DTT)?

Model linking development to shifts in birth and death rates over time. Explains how societies progress through predictable population changes.
What is total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have over her lifetime. Key indicator of population growth potential.
What is life expectancy at birth?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality rates. Key health indicator reflecting overall population well-being.
What is a social clock in the life course perspective?

Culturally expected timing of major life events (for example, marriage, parenthood). Deviation from expected timing can cause social pressure.
What is life expectancy at birth?

Average years a newborn is expected to live under current mortality rates. Reflects overall health and living conditions.
Which concept describes the average number of years a person is expected to live?

Life expectancy. Calculated from age-specific mortality rates.
What is the "feminization of aging"?

Older age groups have a higher proportion of women due to longer female longevity. Women outlive men, creating female-skewed elderly populations.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

A view that social, historical, and personal timing shapes life trajectories. Emphasizes timing of events and transitions across lifespan.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly indicates rapid population growth?

Expansive pyramid with a broad base (many young individuals). Wide base indicates high birth rates typical of developing nations.
What best defines the crude birth rate (CBR)?

Annual live births per $1{,}000$ people in a population. Measures births relative to total population size annually.
Identify the formula for dependency ratio using dependents and working-age population.

$\text{Dependency ratio}=\frac{\text{dependents}}{\text{working-age}}$ . Higher ratio indicates greater economic burden.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

How age-graded roles and transitions shape lives across time and context. Emphasizes timing of events and historical context.
What is demographic transition theory (DTT) used to describe in populations?

A shift from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates with development. Describes how societies modernize from pre-industrial to post-industrial demographics.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model?

Birth rate declines; death rate low; population growth slows. Urbanization and education lead to smaller family preferences.
In the DTM, which stage typically shows falling death rates with persistently high birth rates?

Stage $2$ . Improved healthcare reduces deaths; rapid population growth occurs.
What is a population pyramid?

Age-by-sex graph showing population distribution across cohorts. Visual tool revealing fertility, mortality, and growth patterns.
In the DTM, which stage has low birth rates and low death rates with stable population size?

Stage $4$ (postindustrial). Both rates equalize at low levels, zero natural increase.
Identify the age-structure diagram shape that indicates rapid growth.

Expansive pyramid (wide base, narrow top). High birth rates create a young-heavy population.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial societies reach demographic equilibrium.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Low birth and low death rates; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial equilibrium with controlled fertility.
What is a period effect?

Differences caused by events affecting all ages at a specific time. Historical moments impact all generations simultaneously.
What is the sex ratio at birth, as typically observed in human populations?

About $105$ males per $100$ females. Natural biological phenomenon slightly favoring male births.
What is gender as a sociological concept (distinct from sex)?

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities. Cultural expectations differ from biological sex characteristics.
What is the sex ratio definition in demography?

Number of males per number of females in a population. Indicates gender balance or imbalance in a population.
What is the dependency ratio, and what groups does it compare?

Ratio of dependents (young+old) to working-age population. Measures economic burden on productive population.
What is life expectancy at birth?

Average number of years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality rates. Key health indicator reflecting overall population well-being.
What is the definition of sex ratio in demography?

Number of males per $100$ females in a population. Standard demographic measure of gender balance.
What is a cohort effect in life course research?

Differences due to being born in different time periods, not age itself. Distinguishes generational from developmental differences.
What is the sex ratio as used in demography?

Number of males per $100$ females in a population. Values above $100$ indicate more males; below $100$ more females.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM) used to describe in a population?

A staged shift in birth/death rates as a society industrializes. Tracks how birth/death rates change with economic development.
What is life expectancy at birth?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality rates. Statistical measure based on age-specific death rates.
What is the definition of migration in demographic change?

Movement of individuals into (immigration) or out of (emigration) an area. Migration alters population composition and size, impacting cultural diversity and economic development.
What is the sex ratio in demography typically defined as?

Number of males per $100$ females in a population. The ratio highlights gender imbalances due to factors like migration or sex-selective practices, affecting social dynamics.
What is a population pyramid designed to display about a population?

Age distribution by sex, typically in 5-year cohorts. Visual tool showing population structure by age/sex.
What is the dependency ratio?

Ratio of dependents ( $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ ) to working-age ( $15$ – $64$ ) population. Measures economic burden on productive population.
State the formula for total population growth rate using RNI, immigration, and emigration.

$\text{Growth} = (\text{CBR}-\text{CDR}) + (\text{Immigration}-\text{Emigration})$ . Includes both natural increase and net migration.
What is net migration rate (NMR)?

Immigrants minus emigrants per $1000$ people per year. Positive values indicate net immigration; negative means emigration.
What is the definition of the "feminization of poverty" in demographic sociology?

Disproportionate prevalence of poverty among women, especially single mothers. This phenomenon reflects gender inequalities in employment, wages, and family responsibilities, exacerbating economic vulnerability.
What is the crude death rate (CDR)?

Annual deaths per $1000$ people in a population. Standardized mortality measure for population comparisons.
Calculate growth rate when $\text{RNI}=1.0\%$ and $\text{NMR}=-3$ per $1000$ .

$0.7\%$ per year. $1.0\% + (-3/10) = 1.0\% - 0.3\% = 0.7\%$ total growth.
What is a population pyramid primarily used to display?

Age and sex distribution of a population. Visualizes demographic structure as horizontal bars by age/sex.
What does the life course concept of a cohort refer to?

Group of people who experience the same event in the same time period. Cohorts share unique historical contexts that influence their attitudes, behaviors, and opportunities throughout life.
What is morbidity?

Incidence or prevalence of disease or illness in a population. Distinct from mortality, which measures death.
What characterizes Stage 5 (post-industrial) in some DTM versions?

Birth rate below death rate; population decline and population aging. Some developed nations face shrinking populations.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM) used to describe about populations over time?

A staged shift from high to low birth and death rates with development. Economic development drives shifts in birth/death patterns.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM) used to describe in population change?

A shift from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates with development. Describes how societies progress through predictable population changes.
Identify the age groups typically classified as dependents in dependency ratio.

Ages $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ (working-age typically $15$ – $64$ ). Standard UN definition for economic dependency calculations.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly suggests rapid population growth?

Expansive pyramid (broad base, narrow top). Wide base indicates high birth rates and young population.
What defines Stage 1 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

High birth rate and high death rate; slow population growth. Pre-industrial societies with minimal healthcare/sanitation.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Falling birth rate with low death rate; slowing population growth. Urbanization and education reduce desired family size.
What is the replacement-level fertility in developed countries (approximate)?

About $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality in developed nations.
What is the definition of gender role in sociology?

Set of social norms prescribing behavior for a given gender. Defines culturally appropriate masculine/feminine behaviors.
What is a period effect?

Differences caused by events affecting all ages at a specific time. Historical moments impact everyone simultaneously.
Which population pyramid shape indicates low growth and an older population structure?

Constrictive pyramid with a narrow base and larger older cohorts. Aging populations show inverted pyramid shapes.
What is the dependency ratio, and what age groups does it compare?

Dependents ( $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ ) relative to working-age ( $15$ – $64$ ). Measures economic burden on the productive population.
What is life expectancy at birth?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality. Reflects overall health conditions and medical care.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly indicates rapid growth?

Expansive pyramid: wide base with many children and fewer older adults. High birth rates create broad base characteristic of growing populations.
What is the definition of the dependency ratio in a population?

Ratio of dependents ( $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ ) to working-age ( $15$ – $64$ ). Measures economic burden on the productive population.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial societies with controlled fertility and longevity.
What is infant mortality rate (IMR)?

Deaths under age $1$ per $1{,}000$ live births in a year. Key indicator of healthcare quality and development.
What is infant mortality rate (IMR)?

Deaths under age $1$ per $1{,}000$ live births in a year. Key indicator of healthcare quality and development.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate, falling death rate; rapid population growth. Improved healthcare reduces deaths while births remain high.
What is dependency ratio in demography?

Ratio of dependents (0–14 and 65+) to working-age (15–64). Measures economic burden on working population.
What is the cohort effect?

Differences due to being born in the same period and sharing experiences. Shared historical events shape generational attitudes and behaviors.
What defines DTM Stage 1 (preindustrial) in terms of birth and death rates?

High birth rate and high death rate; slow population growth. Typical of hunter-gatherer societies with minimal medical care.
State the formula for the dependency ratio using age groups $0$ – $14$ , $15$ – $64$ , and $65+$ .

$\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}\times 100$ . Expresses dependents as percentage of working-age population.
What is the difference between age effects and period effects in life course analysis?

Age: changes from aging; period: changes from events affecting all ages. Age = individual development; period = historical context.
What is the gender wage gap in sociological terms?

Average earnings difference between genders for comparable work. Persistent inequality despite equal work value.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have over her lifetime. Key fertility measure used to predict population growth trends.
What is a cohort (history-graded) influence in the life course perspective?

Effects of historical events on a specific birth cohort. Shared experiences shape a generation's life trajectory.
What is cohort effect in life course research?

Differences due to being born in the same time period and sharing historical context. Shared experiences create distinct generational characteristics.
Identify the term for a society where older adults form a large share of the population.

Population aging. Results from low fertility and increased longevity.
What is the dependency ratio in demography?

Ratio of dependents to working-age population. Measures economic burden on productive age groups.
Identify the term for average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.

Total fertility rate (TFR). Key demographic measure for population growth projections.
What is the sex ratio at birth in humans (approximate)?

About $105$ males per $100$ females. Slightly more males born due to biological factors.
What characterizes Stage 3 of the demographic transition model?

Falling birth rate, low death rate; slowing population growth. Urbanization and education lead to smaller family preferences.
What is the demographic transition model (DTM) in population studies?

Model linking development to shifts in birth and death rates over time. Shows how societies progress through predictable population changes.
What is a population pyramid designed to display?

Age distribution by sex, typically in 5-year cohorts. Visual representation shows population structure and growth patterns.
Identify the term for the number of dependents relative to working-age adults.

Dependency ratio. Ratio of non-working (young + old) to working-age population.
What is the dependency ratio intended to compare within a population?

Dependents (young and old) relative to working-age individuals. This ratio assesses economic burden on the productive population, aiding in planning social services and pensions.
What is the "feminization of poverty"?

Disproportionate representation of women among the poor. Results from wage gaps, single motherhood, and discrimination.
What is role conflict?

Incompatibility between expectations of two or more social roles. Common in work-family balance challenges.
In the DTM, which stage has high birth rates and high death rates?

Stage $1$ (preindustrial). Both rates high, resulting in stable but small population.
What is life expectancy at birth in demographic analysis?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality rates. Based on age-specific mortality rates in population.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have over her lifetime. Measures reproductive patterns in a population.
What is the sex ratio at birth, and what is its typical human value?

Males per $100$ females at birth; typically about $105:100$ . Natural ratio slightly favors males at birth.
What is the definition of population growth rate?

Net change in population size per unit time (often per year). Indicates whether population is expanding or contracting.
What does a population pyramid display?

Age distribution by sex, typically in stacked horizontal bars. Visual tool showing population structure with males on one side, females on the other.
What is demography in the context of population structure and change?

Statistical study of population size, composition, and distribution over time. Analyzes how populations change through births, deaths, and migration.
What does replacement-level fertility mean in developed countries?

TFR near $2.1$ children per woman to maintain population size. Accounts for child mortality; slightly above 2 maintains stability.
What is the typical sex ratio at birth in humans?

Approximately $105$ males per $100$ females. Slightly more males born due to biological factors.
What does a population pyramid that is more rectangular (similar widths across ages) indicate?

Low fertility and low mortality; slow growth and aging population. Column shape indicates demographic transition completion.
Which population pyramid shape is most consistent with slow or zero growth?

Stationary pyramid (more rectangular profile). Equal birth and death rates create uniform age distribution.
State the formula for dependency ratio using $0$ – $14$ , $15$ – $64$ , and $65+$ age groups.

Dependency ratio $=\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}$ . Standard formula divides dependents by workers.
What is replacement-level fertility (in developed countries) approximately equal to?

About $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality; maintains stable population.
What is the difference between period effects and cohort effects?

Period: event impacts all ages; cohort: impacts a specific generation. Period affects everyone simultaneously; cohort is generation-specific.
Calculate RNI if $\text{CBR}=18$ and $\text{CDR}=7$ (per $1{,}000$ per year).

$11$ per $1{,}000$ per year. $\text{RNI} = 18 - 7 = 11$ per thousand annually.
What does a broad base in a population pyramid typically indicate?

High birth rate and a large proportion of young people. Young populations have many births and few elderly.
What is the dependency ratio in demography?

Ratio of dependents (young+old) to working-age population. Measures economic burden of non-working age groups on workers.
What is the definition of demography in the context of population studies?

Study of population size, structure, distribution, and change. Analyzes how populations grow, shrink, and change over time.
What is the crude birth rate (CBR)?

Annual births per $1{,}000$ people in a population. Standardized measure allowing comparison across populations.
Identify the demographic term for a population with more older adults than youth.

Population aging (an aging population). Results from declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy.
Identify the sex ratio when there are $1050$ males and $1000$ females.

$\frac{1050}{1000}\times 100=105$ males per $100$ females. Divide males by females, multiply by $100$ .
What is the definition of mortality rate in demographic structure studies?

Frequency of deaths in a population over a specified period. Mortality rates quantify health outcomes and risks, essential for predicting population decline or stability.
What defines Stage 2 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

High birth rate with falling death rate; rapid population growth. Better healthcare reduces deaths while births remain high.
What is the definition of total fertility rate (TFR)?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have over her lifetime. Sums age-specific fertility rates across reproductive years.
What defines DTM Stage 2 (transitional) in terms of birth and death rates?

High birth rate with rapidly falling death rate; rapid growth. Medical advances reduce deaths while births remain high.
What is an age cohort in demographic analysis?

A group of people who share a defined age range or birth period. Experiences similar historical events at same life stages.
What is the definition of fertility rate in demography?

Rate of live births in a population over a specified time period. Measures reproductive patterns in a population.
State the formula for the dependency ratio in terms of age-group populations.

Dependency ratio $=\frac{P_{0-14}+P_{65+}}{P_{15-64}}\times 100$ . Calculates dependent population as percentage of workers.
What is the difference between age effects and cohort effects?

Age: changes from aging; cohort: differences from shared generation context. Age effects are biological; cohort effects are historical.
What is the distinction between sex and gender in social science research?

Sex is biological classification; gender is socially constructed identity/roles. This distinction allows researchers to separate innate biological differences from culturally influenced behaviors and expectations.
What characterizes Stage 1 of the demographic transition model?

High birth rate and high death rate; slow population growth. Pre-industrial societies with minimal medical care and high infant mortality.
What is replacement-level fertility in developed countries approximately?

About $2.1$ births per woman. Accounts for infant mortality; maintains stable population.
In the DTM, which stage is marked by declining birth rates and low death rates?

Stage $3$ (late industrializing). Urbanization and education lead to smaller family sizes.
What is the definition of demographic structure in a population?

Population composition by age, sex, and other characteristics. Describes how a population is distributed across different demographic categories.
What is a population pyramid used to display in demography?

Age and sex distribution of a population. Visual tool showing demographic structure by age cohorts.
What is the typical sex ratio at birth in humans?

Approximately $105$ males per $100$ females. Slightly more males born due to biological factors.
What does the term "gender" refer to in social science?

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities linked to sex categories. Distinct from biological sex characteristics.
What is the definition of gender ratio in demography (distinct from sex ratio)?

Ratio of people identifying as men to people identifying as women (social identity). Reflects self-identification rather than biological sex.
What is replacement-level fertility in developed countries (approximate TFR)?

Approximately $2.1$ children per woman. Accounts for infant mortality; maintains stable population size.
What defines DTM Stage 3 (industrial) in terms of birth and death rates?

Falling birth rate with low death rate; growth slows. Urbanization and education reduce family size preferences.
Identify the main demographic effect of a high dependency ratio.

Greater economic burden on the working-age population. More dependents per worker increases support needs.
What is the infant mortality rate (IMR)?

Deaths under age $1$ per $1{,}000$ live births in a year. Key indicator of healthcare quality and development.
What does "social clock" mean in the life course perspective?

Culturally preferred timing of major life events. Society's expectations for when milestones should occur.
Which population pyramid shape indicates rapid growth and a high youth dependency burden?

Expansive pyramid (wide base, narrow top). Many young people indicate high fertility rates.
What demographic pattern defines a population pyramid that is more rectangular in shape?

Slow growth or stable population with similar cohort sizes across ages. Rectangular shapes reflect balanced age distributions, resulting from low fertility and mortality in mature populations.
What is life expectancy at birth in demographic terms?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current rates. Reflects overall health and living conditions.
What characterizes Stage 4 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Low birth and low death rates; stable or slow population growth. Developed nations reach demographic equilibrium.
What is the formula for population growth rate including migration?

$\text{Growth} = (\text{CBR}-\text{CDR}) + (\text{immigration}-\text{emigration})$ . Total growth accounting for all population change factors.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

High birth rate with falling death rate; rapid population growth. Improved healthcare reduces deaths while births stay high.
What characterizes Stage 2 of the demographic transition model?

Death rate falls while birth rate stays high; rapid population growth. Improved sanitation/medicine drops deaths before cultural birth rate changes.
What is the definition of demography in the context of population studies?

Statistical study of human populations and their changes over time. Demography analyzes population size, distribution, and dynamics to understand societal trends and inform policy.
Identify the formula for dependency ratio using age-group counts.

$\text{Dependency ratio}=\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}$ . Calculates proportion of non-working to working ages.
Identify the concept: a key life event has different effects depending on when it occurs.

Timing of life events (age-graded effects). Same event impacts differently at different life stages.
What is the definition of the life course perspective in sociology?

Approach examining how age-graded roles and transitions shape life outcomes. This perspective integrates historical, social, and individual factors to explain variations in life experiences and outcomes.
What is the definition of life expectancy at birth?

Average years a newborn is expected to live given current mortality rates. Key indicator of population health and development level.
State the dependency ratio formula using ages $0$ – $14$ , $15$ – $64$ , and $65+$ .

$\frac{(0\text{–}14)+(65+)}{15\text{–}64}\times 100$ . Compares dependent age groups to working-age population.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

How age-graded roles and historical context shape trajectories over time. Examines how timing, social roles, and history intersect in lives.
What is sex ratio at birth, and what value is typical in humans?

Male:female births; typically about $105:100$ . Slightly more males born naturally across populations.
What is the difference between age effects and cohort effects?

Age: change due to aging; cohort: change due to generation-specific exposure. Period effects affect all ages simultaneously.
What is the definition of an age-period-cohort (APC) problem in research?

Difficulty separating effects of age, historical period, and birth cohort. Each factor confounds the others in longitudinal studies.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

How age-graded roles and historical context shape lives over time. Emphasizes timing of events and social-historical influences.
What is gender role strain as a concept in gender socialization?

Stress from inability to meet internalized gender role expectations. Psychological distress from rigid gender expectations.
Identify the dependency ratio when $0$ – $14=30$ , $65+=10$ , and $15$ – $64=60$ (proportions).

Dependency ratio $=\frac{30+10}{60}=\frac{2}{3}$ . Calculation: $\frac{40}{60}$ simplifies to $\frac{2}{3}$ .
What is the life course perspective?

Framework emphasizing how age-graded roles and historical context shape lives. Analyzes how timing and context interact across lifespans.
State the formula for population growth rate using RNI and NMR (both per year).

Growth rate $= \text{RNI} + \frac{\text{NMR}}{10}$ (if NMR per $1000$ ). Combines natural increase with migration effects on population.
What defines Stage 3 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Falling birth rate with low death rate; slowing population growth. Urbanization and education reduce fertility rates.
Identify the concept: differences attributable to biological and psychological aging itself.

Age effects. Age effects stem from maturation processes, influencing cognitive, physical, and emotional changes independent of external factors.
What is the life course perspective in sociology?

View that life outcomes reflect age-graded roles shaped by social context and history. Emphasizes timing of events and historical influences.
What is cohort effect in life course and aging research?

Differences due to being born in different time periods, not aging itself. Generational differences from unique historical experiences, not age alone.
Identify the age-structure diagram shape that indicates stable population size.

Stationary (roughly rectangular) age structure. Equal birth and death rates maintain population balance.
Which population pyramid shape is most consistent with rapid growth?

Expansive pyramid (broad base, narrow top). Young population with high birth rates creates wide base.
What is a cohort effect in life course research?

Differences due to being born in the same historical period (birth cohort). Shared experiences shape generational characteristics.
Identify the age-structure diagram shape that indicates population decline.

Constrictive (narrow base, wider middle) age structure. Low birth rates lead to fewer young people than older adults.
What is the sex ratio in demographic structure analysis?

Number of males per number of females in a population. Often expressed as males per 100 females.
What is the sex ratio in demography?

Number of males per $100$ females (or males-to-females ratio). Typically ~105 males per 100 females at birth, equalizes with age.
Calculate RNI when $\text{CBR}=18$ per $1000$ and $\text{CDR}=8$ per $1000$ .

$1.0\%$ per year. $(18-8)/10 = 10/10 = 1.0\%$ growth from natural increase.
What is the dependency ratio conceptually measuring?

The burden of dependents on the working-age population. Measures economic pressure from non-working age groups.
What is mortality?

Frequency of death in a population. Key demographic measure for population health.
What is life expectancy?

Average number of years a newborn is expected to live. Calculated from current mortality rates across all ages.
What ages are typically counted as dependents in the dependency ratio?

Ages $0$ – $14$ and $65+$ . Non-working ages requiring economic support.
Which population pyramid shape most strongly suggests rapid growth?

Broad base, narrow top (triangular pyramid). Young population with high birth rates.
Identify the term for age-based prejudice and discrimination directed at older adults.

Ageism. Form of discrimination based on stereotypes about aging.
What does the demographic transition model describe about population change over time?

Shift from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates with development. The model explains how industrialization and improved healthcare lead to population stabilization in developed societies.
What is the definition of the life course perspective in sociology?

How age-graded roles and historical context shape lives over time. Examines how social and historical factors interact with aging.
What is the difference between sex and gender in social science terminology?

Sex is biological classification; gender is socially constructed roles/identity. Sex is chromosomal/anatomical; gender involves cultural expectations.
Identify the total dependency ratio when $0$ – $14=30$ , $65+=10$ , and $15$ – $64=60$ (percent).

$\frac{40}{60}\times 100\approx 66.7\%$ . Total dependents $(30+10)$ over workers $(60)$ .
What is the definition of gender as a sociological construct (as distinct from sex)?

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations linked to perceived sex. Differs from biological sex; varies across cultures and time.
What defines Stage 4 of the demographic transition model (DTM)?

Low birth rate and low death rate; stable or slow growth. Post-industrial equilibrium with controlled fertility.
What does a narrow base in a population pyramid typically indicate?

Low birth rate and an aging population. Few births create a smaller young population base.
What is the total fertility rate (TFR) intended to estimate?

Average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime. Key fertility indicator for population projections.
What is the formula for natural increase rate (ignoring migration)?

$ \text{Natural increase} = \text{CBR} - \text{CDR}$. Positive value indicates growth; negative indicates decline.

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