Attribution Processes and Attribution Errors (8B) - Psych & Soc

1. Identify the concept: Blaming a robbery victim for being in a "bad neighborhood."

   Just-world hypothesis. Victim blaming restores belief in a fair world by implying deserved outcomes.

2. What is the correspondence bias (correspondent inference theory) in attribution?

   Inferring stable traits from behavior, even when situational constraints exist. Tendency to assume behavior reflects personality despite constraints.

3. What is the actor-observer bias?

   Self: situational causes; Others: dispositional causes. The bias arises from differing perspectives, where actors see their own situations but attribute others' behaviors to traits.

4. What does the discounting principle state in attribution theory?

   Multiple plausible causes reduce weight of any single cause. When multiple causes exist, each seems less important.

5. Identify the attribution: Only this restaurant makes you sick, and it happens every visit.

   Situational (external) attribution. High distinctiveness (only this place) suggests external cause.

6. What are Kelley's three cues used to infer causes of behavior?

   Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Kelley's covariation model uses these to determine attribution type.

7. Using Kelley's model, which attribution fits: high consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency?

   External (stimulus/situational) attribution. This pattern points to the specific stimulus causing the behavior, as it is consistent and shared but unique to the context.

8. Using Kelley's model, which attribution fits: low consistency (regardless of consensus/distinctiveness)?

   External (temporary circumstances) attribution. Low consistency implies the behavior is due to transient factors rather than stable causes.

9. What is defensive attribution?

   Attributing blame to reduce one's perceived vulnerability. This process helps individuals feel safer by distinguishing their situation from the victim's.

10. Identify the error: You see a rude cashier and conclude they are a rude person, ignoring a long line.

    Fundamental attribution error. Ignoring situational pressures when judging others' behavior.

11. What is the ultimate attribution error?

    Group-based FAE: outgroup negatives internal, outgroup positives external. Extends FAE to intergroup contexts with in-group favoritism.

12. What is the self-serving bias?

    Success to self; failure to external factors. We protect self-esteem by attributing differently based on outcome.

13. What is the false consensus effect?

    Overestimating how much others share one's beliefs/acts. We think our views/behaviors are more common than they are.

14. What does distinctiveness mean in Kelley's covariation model?

    Behavior is specific to one stimulus or context. High distinctiveness indicates the behavior is tied to a specific situation or stimulus.

15. What are the three covariation cues in Kelley's covariation model?

    Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. These cues help determine if behavior covaries with persons, stimuli, or circumstances for accurate attributions.

16. Identify the bias: A well-dressed applicant is judged as more competent without evidence.

    Halo effect. Appearance creates positive impression affecting other judgments.

17. Identify the error: "They failed because they are lazy; we failed because the test was unfair."

    Ultimate attribution error. Shows in-group favoritism in causal explanations.

18. What does Kelley's covariation model propose about causal attributions?

    People infer cause from consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Three factors help determine internal vs external causes.

19. What is attribution in social psychology?

    Inferring the causes of behavior and events. We explain why people act as they do by attributing causes.

20. What is the fundamental attribution error?

    Overattributing others' behavior to disposition over situation. We underestimate situational factors when judging others.

21. What is a situational (external) attribution?

    Explaining behavior by context, environment, or circumstances. Focuses on external factors rather than internal personality traits.

22. Identify the error: A cashier is curt during a rush, and you conclude they are unfriendly.

    Correspondence bias. Ignoring situational pressure (rush) when judging personality.

23. What is the halo effect in attribution and impression formation?

    One positive trait biases global evaluation of a person. Initial positive impression colors all subsequent judgments.

24. Identify the concept: Inferring a trait more strongly when a person freely chooses a counter-normative action.

    Correspondent inference (choice and low social desirability). Freely chosen, low-desirability actions strongly imply underlying traits without external influences.

25. In Kelley's model, which pattern best supports a dispositional attribution?

    Low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency. Person acts uniquely across situations consistently.

26. In Kelley's model, which pattern best supports a situational attribution?

    High consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency. Everyone reacts similarly to this specific situation.

27. What is the difference between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions?

    Internal: person traits; External: environment or context. Internal attributions link behavior to personal characteristics, while external ones consider environmental influences.

28. Using Kelley's model, which attribution fits: high consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency?

    External (situational/circumstantial) attribution. This pattern indicates broad external factors, as the behavior is common across people and situations consistently.

29. What is the actor-observer bias?

    Self: situational causes; others: dispositional causes for the same act. We have more info about our own situations than others'.

30. Identify the concept: Assuming a robbery victim was careless because "bad things happen for a reason."

    Just-world hypothesis. Blaming victims helps maintain belief in fairness.

31. What does consistency mean in Kelley's covariation model?

    Same person responds the same way over time in that context. High consistency shows the behavior is stable, supporting reliable attributions.

32. What is a dispositional (internal) attribution?

    Explaining behavior by stable traits, motives, or personality. Focuses on internal factors like character rather than external factors.

33. What is the fundamental attribution error?

    Overattributing others' behavior to disposition and underweighting situation. We underestimate how situations influence others' actions.

34. What is the actor–observer bias?

    Self: situation; others: disposition for the same behavior. We attribute our own actions to situations but others' to personality.

35. Identify the bias: You call yourself "stressed" for snapping, but call others "rude."

    Actor-observer bias. You know your stress context but not theirs.

36. What is the self-serving bias?

    Attributing successes internally and failures externally. Protects self-esteem and maintains positive self-image.

37. What is the difference between dispositional and situational attributions?

    Dispositional: internal traits; situational: external context. Dispositional = personality; situational = circumstances.

38. Identify the concept: "He crashed because he is reckless; that would not happen to me."

    Defensive attribution. Blaming the victim reduces perceived personal risk by implying avoidable recklessness.

39. What does consensus mean in Kelley's covariation model?

    Others respond similarly to the same stimulus. High consensus suggests situational causes since the behavior is not unique to the individual.

40. What is the just-world hypothesis?

    Belief that people get outcomes they deserve. Assumes good/bad things happen to good/bad people respectively.

41. Identify the bias: A student credits an A to talent but blames a C on unfair grading.

    Self-serving bias. The bias preserves self-esteem by internalizing successes and externalizing failures.

42. What is the halo effect in impression formation?

    A global positive impression biases ratings of specific traits. One positive trait influences perception of all traits.

43. In correspondent inference, what does "social desirability" predict about dispositional attributions?

    Low desirability increases dispositional inference. Behaviors against norms are seen as more reflective of true dispositions due to lack of external pressure.

44. What is the correspondence bias?

    Assuming behavior reflects stable disposition despite context. Another term for fundamental attribution error.

45. What is correspondent inference theory primarily used to infer from behavior?

    Stable internal traits or intentions. The theory infers dispositions when behaviors are freely chosen and produce unique effects.

46. What does the augmentation principle state in attribution theory?

    Behavior despite obstacles implies a stronger internal cause. Acting despite constraints suggests strong internal motivation.

47. What is an attribution in social psychology?

    An inference about the cause of a behavior or outcome. Attributions explain behaviors by inferring underlying causes, central to understanding social perceptions in psychology.

48. Identify the bias: You ace an exam and say it was intelligence; you fail and blame unfair questions.

    Self-serving bias. Attributing success internally and failure externally protects ego.

49. In correspondent inference, what does "noncommon effects" refer to?

    Unique outcomes that distinguish one choice from alternatives. Noncommon effects highlight intentional choices by showing outcomes not shared with other options.

50. What is attribution in social psychology?

    Assigning causes to behavior and events (internal or external). Process of determining why events occur or people act certain ways.

51. What is the ultimate attribution error?

    Biased attributions about outgroup vs ingroup behavior. Extends fundamental attribution error to intergroup contexts.

52. Identify the bias: You blame your poor grade on a hard test, not your studying.

    Self-serving bias. Protects self-esteem by attributing failure externally.

53. Using Kelley's model, which attribution fits: low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency?

    Internal (dispositional) attribution. This pattern suggests the cause is unique to the person's traits, as others do not behave similarly across contexts.

54. What is the just-world hypothesis?

    Belief that people get outcomes they deserve; world is fundamentally fair. Helps maintain sense of control and predictability.

55. Identify the attribution: You cut someone off because you were late; you say it was due to traffic.

    Situational attribution (actor–observer pattern). Actors attribute their own behavior to situations, not personality.

56. Identify the attribution error: You cut someone off; you say it was traffic, but they are a bad driver.

    Actor-observer bias. This bias reflects differing perspectives: actors emphasize situations, while observers focus on dispositions.

57. What is the confirmation bias as it relates to attributions?

    Seeking/weighting info that supports an initial attribution. We favor evidence that confirms our initial causal judgment.

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