Social Identity and Group Membership (8A) - Psych & Soc

Identify the concept: "I am a student, so I adopt my school's norms and values."

Internalization of group membership into self-concept (social identity). Shows how group membership becomes part of personal identity.
What is the out-group homogeneity effect?

Perceiving out-group members as more similar than they are. We see 'them' as all alike but 'us' as diverse individuals.
What is depersonalization in self-categorization theory?

Seeing self as a group prototype rather than a unique individual. Shifts behavior from individual to group-based.
What is role strain?

Stress from competing demands within a single role. Role strain occurs when multiple obligations within one role create tension, impacting individual well-being and performance.
Identify the concept: Two random groups are assigned, and each allocates more rewards to their own group.

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism from categorization). The paradigm illustrates how mere categorization triggers intergroup bias, even without prior history or conflict.
Identify the concept: Favoring your team after random assignment to "Team A."

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism from arbitrary grouping). Shows bias emerges from mere categorization alone.
What is a master status?

A status that strongly shapes identity and social interactions. A master status dominates others in shaping how individuals are perceived and treated in social contexts.
What is a primary group?

Small, close, enduring group with strong emotional ties. Primary groups, such as families, offer emotional support and socialization through intimate, long-term relationships.
What is an outgroup in the context of social identity?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. The 'out' prefix indicates exclusion or non-membership status.
What is the primary distinction between normative and informational social influence?

Normative: fit in; informational: be correct using others as evidence. Normative seeks acceptance; informational seeks accuracy.
What is social categorization in social identity theory?

Classifying people into groups to simplify the social world. Mental process of sorting people into group categories.
Identify the concept: People adopt group norms to gain acceptance.

Normative social influence. Conformity driven by desire to fit in and be liked.
Identify the best label: After random group assignment, participants allocate more rewards to their own group.

In-group favoritism (minimal group effect). Demonstrates bias from mere categorization alone.
What is an out-group in the context of social identity?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Perceived as different from one's own group.
What is group polarization?

Group discussion shifts members toward more extreme positions. Initial attitudes intensify through repeated group exposure.
What is the definition of an in-group?

A group with which an individual identifies and feels membership. Groups we belong to shape our identity and behavior.
What is a minimal group paradigm finding about group behavior?

Arbitrary group assignment can produce in-group favoritism. Tajfel's experiments demonstrate that mere categorization into groups, even arbitrarily, elicits discriminatory behavior favoring one's group.
Which option best describes the contact hypothesis for reducing prejudice?

Intergroup contact under equal status and shared goals reduces bias. Positive interactions with cooperation reduce prejudice.
Which concept explains why a stigmatized person may underperform when a negative stereotype is salient?

Stereotype threat. Anxiety about confirming stereotypes impairs performance.
What is positive distinctiveness in social identity theory?

Motivation to view one's in-group as positively different. This drive in social identity theory encourages intergroup differentiation to enhance the perceived superiority of one's group.
Identify the concept: People conform because they believe the group is correct.

Informational social influence. Conforming because we trust the group's knowledge or judgment.
What is scapegoating?

Blaming an out-group for problems to reduce in-group frustration. Redirecting anger onto a vulnerable out-group.
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups. Boosts self-esteem through group status.
What is a reference group?

A group used as a standard for self-evaluation and norms. Reference groups provide benchmarks for attitudes, values, and behaviors, influencing individual aspirations and self-perception.
What is a stereotype?

A generalized belief about a group and its members. Mental shortcuts that overgeneralize group traits.
Which option best describes a contrast effect in intergroup comparison?

Differences between in-group and out-group are exaggerated. Perceiving greater differences than actually exist.
Which concept best fits: "Randomly assigned groups still allocate more rewards to their own"?

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism without history). Demonstrates bias emerges instantly with arbitrary groupings.
What is social comparison in the context of social identity?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups to assess status/value. Groups compare themselves to establish relative worth.
Which concept best explains why people favor their in-group to boost self-esteem?

Social Identity Theory. Links in-group favoritism to self-esteem maintenance.
What is an in-group in the context of social identity?

A group with which an individual identifies and feels membership. Members share identity and sense of belonging.
What is the minimal group paradigm designed to demonstrate?

In-group bias can occur from arbitrary, minimal group assignment. Even random grouping creates bias toward one's group.
Identify the concept: People compare in-group to out-group to enhance self-esteem.

Social comparison. Boosts self-esteem through favorable comparisons.
What is role conflict?

Stress from incompatible expectations across different roles. Role conflict arises from clashing demands of multiple roles, leading to stress and requiring prioritization or adjustment.
What is out-group derogation?

Negative attitudes or behavior directed toward an out-group. Stemming from intergroup comparisons, this involves devaluing out-groups to maintain positive distinctiveness for one's in-group.
What is self-categorization theory primarily used to explain?

How group membership becomes salient and guides depersonalized behavior. Shifts from personal to social identity levels.
Identify the concept: "People define themselves as unique individuals, not group members."

Personal identity (as opposed to social identity). Focus on individual traits rather than group membership.
What is an out-group?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Creates social boundaries between "us" and "them."
What is a group prototype in self-categorization theory?

A context-specific set of attributes defining the "typical" member. Mental model of what a typical group member is like.
What is self-categorization theory primarily focused on?

How context shifts identity from personal to group-based. Situations activate either personal or social identities.
Identify the concept: A team member contributes less effort because others are also working.

Social loafing. Decreased effort when individual contribution is hidden.
What is a social category in the context of social identity?

A classification of people into groups based on shared traits. Groups form around common characteristics like race, profession, or interests.
Identify the concept: A person acts like "just one of the crowd" when anonymous in a mob.

Deindividuation. Loss of individual identity in anonymous crowds.
Identify the concept: People align with group views because they seem correct.

Informational social influence. Conformity based on believing others have accurate information.
What is positive distinctiveness in Social Identity Theory?

Motivation to view one's in-group as positively different from out-groups. Drives intergroup bias to enhance self-esteem.
What is prejudice (as distinct from stereotype and discrimination)?

Affective attitude toward a group, often negative and preconceived. Emotional component: how we feel about groups.
Which concept best fits: "A committee ignores warnings to maintain harmony"?

Groupthink. Pressure for unanimity prevents critical evaluation of decisions.
What does the contact hypothesis propose reduces prejudice?

Intergroup contact under equal status and cooperative conditions. Positive interactions break down group barriers.
What is discrimination (as distinct from stereotype and prejudice)?

Behavior that disadvantages people based on group membership. Behavioral component: how we act toward group members.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

Mere categorization can produce in-group favoritism. Even arbitrary groupings trigger bias.
What is the minimal group paradigm?

Ingroup bias produced by arbitrary, trivial group assignments. Even random groupings (coin flip) create immediate ingroup preference.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group favoritism can occur with arbitrary group assignments. Even random groupings create bias toward own group.
Which concept is shown: "In a crowd, I felt anonymous and broke rules I usually follow."?

Deindividuation. Loss of individual identity in groups enables uncharacteristic behavior.
Identify the concept: group membership increases self-esteem after a threat to identity.

Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) to restore self-esteem. Associating with successful groups enhances self-image.
Which concept best fits: "I see myself mainly as a team member when at a game"?

Self-categorization (salience of group identity in context). Context makes group membership more prominent than personal identity.
What is self-serving bias?

Attributing successes internally and failures externally. Protects self-esteem through biased attributions.
What is self-categorization theory primarily used to explain?

How group membership becomes salient and guides behavior. Explains when group identity becomes active.
What is social comparison in Social Identity Theory?

Comparing in-group to out-groups to maintain positive self-esteem. Third stage seeking positive group distinctiveness.
Which intervention reduces prejudice by making groups share goals requiring cooperation?

Superordinate goals. Shared objectives requiring interdependence reduce bias.
What is positive distinctiveness in social identity theory?

Motivation to view one's in-group as better than relevant out-groups. Drive to see our group as superior maintains positive social identity.
What is an in-group in the context of group membership?

A group with which an individual identifies and feels belonging. Creates sense of "us" through shared identity.
What is an out-group in the context of social identity and group membership?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Groups we're not part of, often viewed as different from us.
What is out-group derogation?

Negative attitudes or behavior directed toward an out-group. Hostility toward 'them' to enhance 'us' distinction.
Identify the bias: "They are all the same" said about a rival group.

Out-group homogeneity bias. Seeing out-group members as more alike than they really are.
What is outgroup derogation?

Negative attitudes or behavior directed at an outgroup. Hostility or prejudice directed at those outside one's group.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group favoritism can occur with arbitrary group assignment. Shows bias emerges even without real group differences.
What is a social stigma?

A socially discrediting attribute that devalues a person. Social stigmas, as per Goffman, lead to discrimination by marking individuals as deviant or inferior in societal views.
Identify the concept: "After being assigned to Team A randomly, I start favoring Team A."

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism from arbitrary grouping). Shows bias emerges from mere categorization alone.
What is the difference between an in-group and an out-group?

In-group: "us"; out-group: "them" relative to the perceiver. Based on whether you belong to the group or not.
What is positive distinctiveness in social identity theory?

Motivation to view the in-group as better than out-groups. Enhances self-worth via group superiority.
What is group polarization?

Group discussion strengthens the group's initial average attitude. Groups amplify pre-existing tendencies through mutual reinforcement.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group bias can occur from arbitrary group assignment. Shows bias emerges even with random, meaningless group divisions.
What is a role in a social group?

A set of expected behaviors associated with a social position. Roles define normative behaviors tied to positions in social groups, facilitating predictable interactions and group functioning.
Which term describes believing one's in-group is superior to others?

Ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism reflects in-group bias where one's group is seen as the norm and superior, promoting cultural prejudice.
What is ingroup favoritism?

Preferential attitudes or behavior toward one's ingroup. Bias that favors one's own group over others.
What is outgroup derogation?

Negative attitudes or behavior directed toward an outgroup. Derogation means disparagement; often occurs to enhance ingroup status.
Identify the concept: "I am not prejudiced; I treat everyone the same," despite unequal outcomes.

Aversive (implicit) prejudice. Unconscious bias despite egalitarian beliefs.
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups. We assess our group's status by comparing to others.
Identify the concept: People adopt group norms to gain approval and avoid rejection.

Normative social influence. Conformity driven by desire for social acceptance.
What is positive distinctiveness in social identity theory?

Motivation to view one's in-group as positively different. Desire for our group to be unique and superior.
What is an in-group?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. The 'we' group that forms part of one's social identity.
Identify the concept: "A person changes behavior to match group norms to be accepted."

Normative social influence. Conformity driven by desire for group acceptance.
What is a reference group?

A group used as a standard for self-evaluation or behavior norms. Provides benchmarks for attitudes and behaviors.
Identify the concept: People conform because they believe others have accurate information.

Informational social influence. Assuming others know better in ambiguous situations.
What is social identity in social psychology?

Self-concept derived from membership in social groups. Social identity theory posits that individuals derive part of their self-concept from perceived memberships in social groups, influencing behavior and attitudes.
Which intervention most directly reduces prejudice by increasing cross-group cooperation?

Superordinate goals (Realistic Conflict Theory). Shared goals requiring cooperation reduce intergroup conflict.
Which option best describes the contact hypothesis for reducing prejudice?

Intergroup contact reduces prejudice under optimal conditions. Direct interaction can improve intergroup relations.
What is scapegoating as an explanation for prejudice?

Blaming an out-group for frustration or negative outcomes. Displaced aggression targets vulnerable out-groups.
What is a stereotype in the context of group membership?

A generalized belief about traits or behaviors of a group. Cognitive shortcuts about groups; can be positive, negative, or neutral.
What is ingroup favoritism?

Preferential attitudes or behavior toward one's ingroup. People naturally favor their own groups to maintain positive self-image.
What is a stereotype in social psychology?

A generalized belief about attributes of a group. Oversimplified beliefs applied to all group members.
What is a social category as used in social identity theory?

A classification of people based on shared characteristics. Grouping by traits like race, gender, or occupation.
What is an ingroup in the context of social identity?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. The 'in' prefix indicates membership or belonging within the group.
What is out-group homogeneity bias?

Perceiving out-group members as more similar than they are. "They all look alike" effect for outsiders.
Which option best defines stereotype threat?

Performance impairment from fear of confirming a negative group stereotype. Anxiety about fulfilling stereotypes can create self-fulfilling prophecy.
What is social categorization in Social Identity Theory?

Classifying people (including self) into groups to simplify social world. First step in Social Identity Theory's three-stage process.
Identify the phenomenon: Arbitrary team assignment leads to unequal reward allocation.

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism without real conflict). Demonstrates bias from mere categorization alone.
Which concept best explains: "They are all the same," said about a rival group?

Out-group homogeneity effect. This effect stems from perceiving greater variability within one's in-group compared to the uniformity attributed to out-groups.
Which concept best explains reduced helping when other bystanders are present?

Diffusion of responsibility. Individual responsibility diluted in groups.
What is a primary group?

Small, close, enduring relationships (for example, family, close friends). Intimate groups provide emotional support and identity.
What is the authoritarian personality associated with?

Prejudice, conformity, and submission to authority. Personality type prone to rigid thinking and obedience.
What is social identification in Social Identity Theory?

Adopting the in-group's identity as part of the self-concept. Second stage where group membership becomes self-relevant.
What is out-group derogation?

Negative attitudes or behavior directed toward an out-group. Prejudice against those outside one's group.
What is an ingroup norm?

Shared expectations for attitudes and behavior within a group. In-group norms guide members' conduct to maintain group cohesion and identity within social structures.
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups. Groups enhance self-esteem through favorable comparisons.
What is a secondary group?

Large, impersonal, goal-oriented group with weaker ties. Secondary groups focus on specific objectives, with interactions that are more formal and less emotionally invested than primary groups.
What is a reference group?

A group used as a standard for self-evaluation and behavior norms. We compare ourselves to these groups to gauge our status.
What is depersonalization in self-categorization theory?

Seeing self as a prototypical group member rather than a unique individual. Group identity temporarily overrides personal identity.
What is an in-group?

A group with which an individual identifies and feels belonging. Members share values, goals, and a sense of "we" versus "they."
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group favoritism can occur without meaningful group differences. Proves categorization alone creates bias.
What is an in-group?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. The group you belong to and feel connected with.
What is an out-group in the context of group membership?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Creates sense of "them" as distinct from self.
What is a formal group?

A group with defined roles, rules, and structure. Organizations with clear hierarchy and procedures.
What is a stereotype in the context of group membership?

Generalized belief about traits of members of a group. Mental shortcuts that overgeneralize group characteristics.
Which theory states that intergroup conflict arises from competition over limited resources?

Realistic conflict theory. Scarcity creates zero-sum competition between groups.
What is discrimination (as distinct from prejudice)?

Behavior that disadvantages people based on group membership. Actions that harm or exclude based on group membership.
What is social categorization in social identity theory?

Classifying people into groups to simplify the social world. As a foundational process in social identity theory, it reduces cognitive complexity by grouping individuals based on shared characteristics.
Identify the best label: You define yourself as a 'student' during class but as a 'sibling' at home.

Context-dependent salience of social identity. Different situations activate different group identities.
What is prejudice (as distinct from discrimination)?

Negative attitude or belief about a group and its members. Attitudes involve feelings; discrimination involves actions.
Which concept best fits: A person changes behavior to match group norms to be accepted?

Normative social influence. Conforming to gain approval and avoid rejection.
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups to gain esteem. We boost self-esteem by comparing our group favorably to others.
What is a group prototype in self-categorization theory?

A set of attributes defining the most representative group member. Ideal member embodying group's core characteristics.
What does Social Identity Theory propose about self-esteem and groups?

People seek positive distinctiveness to enhance self-esteem. Group membership boosts self-worth through comparison.
What is a superordinate goal in intergroup conflict research?

A shared objective requiring cooperation between groups. Unites competing groups toward common purpose.
Which theory states that equal-status, cooperative contact reduces prejudice?

Contact hypothesis. Positive intergroup interaction reduces bias.
What is a stereotype?

A generalized belief about attributes of members of a group. Oversimplified assumptions about all group members.
What is social identity in social psychology?

Self-concept derived from perceived membership in social groups. Part of self-concept comes from group affiliations.
Which option best describes an assimilation effect in group contexts?

Judgments shift toward the in-group norm or prototype. Members converge toward group's typical position.
What is self-categorization theory primarily about?

Context shifts identity from personal self to group-based self. Situations activate different identities (personal vs. group member).
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups. In social identity theory, this process helps individuals achieve positive self-esteem by favorably contrasting their group with others.
What is group polarization?

Group discussion strengthens the group's initial leanings. Groups amplify pre-existing attitudes through discussion.
What is self-fulfilling prophecy in intergroup contexts?

Expectations elicit behavior that makes the expectation come true. Biased expectations shape others' actual behavior.
What is an out-group?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Groups you're not part of, often viewed as "them" vs "us."
What is an out-group?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. The 'they' group perceived as different from one's own.
What is prejudice (as distinct from discrimination)?

Attitude or evaluation toward a group or its members. Negative feelings or judgments about a group.
What is group polarization?

Group discussion strengthens the group's initial tendency. Groups amplify members' pre-existing attitudes.
What is social categorization in social identity theory?

Classifying people into groups to simplify the social world. Mental sorting reduces cognitive load.
What is discrimination?

Behavior that disadvantages others based on group membership. Actions that create unequal treatment.
What is stereotype threat?

Performance impairment from fear of confirming a negative stereotype. Anxiety about stereotype affects performance.
What does social identity theory propose is a key motive for group behavior?

Maintaining or enhancing self-esteem via positive group distinctiveness. Groups boost self-worth through positive comparisons.
Identify the bias: "They are all alike, but my group has diverse individuals."

Out-group homogeneity bias. Sees less variability in out-groups than in-groups.
What is an out-group in the context of social identity?

A group to which an individual does not belong. Out-groups are perceived as distinct from one's in-group, often leading to biases and comparisons in social identity processes.
Identify the concept: People adopt behaviors to match group norms to gain acceptance.

Normative social influence. Conforming for social approval and to avoid rejection or punishment.
What is prejudice in the context of group membership?

Negative attitude or affect toward a group and its members. Emotional component of bias; feelings precede discriminatory actions.
What is ethnocentrism?

Judging other cultures by one's own cultural standards. Ethnocentrism involves biased judgments favoring one's own culture, often leading to prejudice against others.
What is discrimination (as distinct from prejudice)?

Behavior that disadvantages people based on group membership. Actions that harm or exclude based on group membership.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

Ingroup bias can occur with arbitrary group assignments. Shows bias emerges even with random, meaningless groupings.
What are the three key processes in Social Identity Theory?

Social categorization, social identification, social comparison. Sequential stages: classify groups, adopt identity, then compare.
What is an ingroup in the context of social identity?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. The group one belongs to and psychologically identifies with.
What is the ultimate attribution error regarding out-groups?

Attributing out-group negatives to traits and positives to situations. Biased attributions protect in-group image.
What is out-group derogation?

Negative attitudes or behaviors directed toward an out-group. Maintains positive distinctiveness by viewing out-groups negatively.
What is a secondary group?

Larger, goal-oriented, impersonal relationships (for example, coworkers). Task-focused groups with less personal connection.
What is depersonalization in self-categorization theory?

Seeing oneself as a prototypical group member rather than unique. Acting as group member rather than individual when group is salient.
What is social identification in Social Identity Theory?

Adopting an in-group's identity as part of the self-concept. Second step: taking on group's values and norms as one's own.
Identify the scenario: A person adopts group norms and loses self-awareness in a crowd.

Deindividuation. Loss of individual identity in group settings.
Identify the best label: A person emphasizes a shared 'we' identity to reduce intergroup bias.

Common ingroup identity (recategorization) model. Creating superordinate identity reduces us-vs-them mentality.
What is social comparison in social identity theory?

Evaluating one's group relative to other groups. Groups boost self-esteem through favorable comparisons.
What is the out-group homogeneity effect?

Perceiving out-group members as more similar than they are. This cognitive bias results from limited exposure to out-groups, leading to overgeneralization and stereotyping.
Which option best describes the outgroup homogeneity effect?

Perceiving outgroup members as more similar to each other than ingroup members. "They all look alike" effect; less familiarity reduces perceived variability.
Which concept best fits: A person adopts group beliefs because they seem correct or informative?

Informational social influence. Conforming because group seems to know better.
What is a social category (in social identity theory)?

A classification of people into groups based on shared traits. Groups defined by common characteristics like race or gender.
What is an informal group?

A group without formally defined roles or explicit structure. Groups that form naturally without official organization.
What is an outgroup in the context of social identity?

A group to which an individual does not belong. Groups one doesn't belong to, often viewed as 'them' vs 'us'.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group favoritism can occur with arbitrary group assignment. Even random grouping creates bias, showing how easily we form in-groups.
What is self-categorization theory primarily about?

How people categorize self/others into groups, shaping identity and behavior. Explains how group membership influences self-perception.
What is the definition of an out-group?

A group to which an individual does not belong or identify. Groups we're excluded from or don't relate to.
What is a stereotype in the context of group processes?

A generalized belief about attributes of a group. Oversimplified group characteristics.
Identify the concept: A person boosts self-esteem by praising their team and insulting rivals.

In-group favoritism (with out-group derogation). This behavior enhances self-esteem through positive in-group associations while diminishing out-groups to affirm superiority.
Identify the term: "A belief that all members of an out-group are similar."

Out-group homogeneity bias. Perceiving less variability in 'them' than in 'us.'
What is a stereotype (as distinct from prejudice and discrimination)?

A generalized belief about a group and its members. Cognitive component: what we think about groups.
What is self-categorization theory primarily about?

Shifts between personal identity and group-based identity. People flexibly emphasize individual or group aspects of self.
Identify the concept: People assume all members of a rival group "are the same."

Out-group homogeneity bias. Stereotyping out-groups as all being alike.
What is self-categorization theory primarily concerned with?

How context shifts self-definition between personal and group identity. We shift between individual and group identities by situation.
What is a reference group?

A group used as a standard for self-evaluation and norms. Groups we compare ourselves to for attitudes, values, and behaviors.
What is the minimal group paradigm intended to demonstrate?

Arbitrary group assignment can produce in-group favoritism. Even random groups show bias effects.
Identify the term: preferring one's group after being randomly assigned to it.

Minimal group paradigm (in-group favoritism with trivial groups). Shows bias emerges from mere categorization.
What is social categorization in social identity theory?

Classifying self and others into groups (e.g., "us" vs "them"). First step in social identity: mentally sorting people into groups.
What is in-group favoritism?

Preferential attitudes or behavior toward one's in-group. This bias arises from social identity needs, where individuals enhance self-esteem by favoring their own group over others.
What is an in-group in the context of social identity?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. In social identity theory, in-groups are those with which individuals psychologically identify, fostering a sense of belonging and favoritism.
What is discrimination in the context of group membership?

Unequal behavior or treatment based on group membership. Behavioral manifestation of prejudice; actions differ by group membership.
What is the definition of social identity in social psychology?

Self-concept derived from membership in social groups. Part of self-concept comes from group affiliations.
Which concept best fits: "After discussion, members adopt more extreme pro-policy views"?

Group polarization. Initial positions intensify through reinforcing group dynamics.
What is social dominance orientation (SDO)?

Preference for group-based hierarchy and inequality. Belief that some groups should dominate others.
What is social categorization?

Classifying people into groups to simplify social perception. Mental shortcuts organize complex social world.
Identify the concept: After group discussion, members adopt a more extreme version of their initial view.

Group polarization. Groups shift toward more extreme positions.
Identify the term: "Attributing negative out-group acts to traits but in-group acts to situations."

Ultimate attribution error. Extends fundamental attribution error to intergroup contexts.
What is a group prototype in self-categorization theory?

The set of attributes seen as most representative of a group. The typical or ideal member embodying group characteristics.
Which concept explains reduced individual accountability in groups?

Deindividuation. Loss of self-awareness in groups leads to less restraint.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group favoritism can occur with arbitrary group assignment. Shows bias emerges even with random, meaningless groups.
What is self-categorization theory primarily concerned with?

How context shifts identity from personal to group-based self. Explains when we think as 'I' versus 'we' based on situation.
What is depersonalization in self-categorization theory?

Seeing self as interchangeable with the group prototype. Individual identity merges with group identity.
What does it mean for a group identity to be salient?

It is prominent in self-concept and guides perception/behavior. Active identity influences thoughts and actions.
What is positive distinctiveness in social identity theory?

Motivation to view the ingroup as better than outgroups. Desire for ingroup superiority enhances self-esteem.
What is a stereotype in social psychology?

Generalized belief about attributes of a group and its members. Cognitive schemas about group characteristics.
What is an in-group in the context of social identity and group membership?

A group with which an individual identifies as a member. Groups we belong to shape our identity and behavior.
Which bias is shown: "All members of the rival team are basically the same."?

Out-group homogeneity bias. Viewing out-group members as interchangeable rather than unique.
What is the minimal group paradigm used to demonstrate?

In-group bias can occur from arbitrary, minimal group assignments. Even random groupings create in-group preference.
What is the realistic conflict theory explanation for prejudice?

Intergroup competition over scarce resources increases hostility. Limited resources create zero-sum group conflicts.
What is stereotype threat?

Performance impairment from fear of confirming a stereotype. Stereotype threat impairs performance due to anxiety over fulfilling negative group stereotypes, as shown in research by Steele.
What are the key optimal conditions for contact to reduce prejudice?

Equal status, common goals, cooperation, and institutional support. Allport's conditions for successful intergroup contact.
Identify the concept: "I am unlike most members of the other team; they are all basically the same."

Out-group homogeneity bias. Seeing diversity in own group but not in other groups.
What is a reference group in sociology and social psychology?

A group used as a standard for self-evaluation and norms. Groups we compare ourselves to for guidance.
Identify the concept: Group membership becomes central and behavior follows group norms.

Social identification. Person adopts group identity and behaviors.
What is a superordinate goal in intergroup relations?

A shared objective requiring cooperation between groups. Common goals reduce conflict between groups.
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of stereotypes?

Expectations elicit behaviors that make the expectation come true. Others' stereotypical expectations shape actual behavior.
What does Social Identity Theory propose as a motive for group bias?

Maintaining or enhancing self-esteem via positive group distinctiveness. Groups compete for positive status to boost members' self-worth.

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