Cognitive Processes in Learning and Behavior Change (7C) - Psych & Soc

Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule. Unpredictable count maintains high, steady responding.
What is the definition of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Adding a stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is strengthened by presenting a reward.
What is the difference between stimulus generalization and discrimination?

Generalization: similar stimuli elicit CR; discrimination: only CS does. Generalization extends the response to similar stimuli, while discrimination refines it to the specific conditioned stimulus through differential reinforcement.
What is the definition of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Adding a stimulus to increase behavior frequency. Like giving praise or rewards to encourage repetition.
What is the Rescorla-Wagner model's core claim about when conditioning occurs?

Conditioning depends on prediction error (unexpectedness of the US). The model posits that learning strengthens when the unconditioned stimulus is surprising, quantifying associative changes via prediction errors.
What is reciprocal determinism in social cognitive theory?

Person, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other. Bidirectional causation creates a dynamic system of influence.
What is latent learning in cognitive approaches to learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and appears when needed. Knowledge remains dormant until a situation requires its use.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time.

Fixed-interval schedule. First response after set time earns reinforcement.
What is observational learning (modeling) in social cognitive theory?

Learning by watching others and the outcomes of their actions. Bandura's theory highlights how individuals acquire behaviors by imitating models, especially when outcomes are observed as rewarding or punishing.
Which option best defines exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders?

Repeated, controlled exposure to feared stimuli to reduce fear via extinction. It facilitates habituation and extinction by confronting phobic stimuli directly, reducing avoidance and anxiety in behavioral treatments.
What is the difference between fixed-interval and variable-interval reinforcement schedules?

Fixed: set time; Variable: unpredictable time until reinforcement. Fixed has predictable delays; variable has random delays.
What is the difference between a fixed interval and variable interval reinforcement schedule?

Fixed: set time; variable: unpredictable time before reward availability. Fixed interval reinforces after a consistent time lapse, whereas variable interval uses unpredictable intervals, affecting scalloped or steady response rates.
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Initial learning phase when CS–US association is formed. The period when the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned.
What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and appears later. Tolman's rats showed knowledge only when motivated by reward.
What is classical conditioning defined as in terms of stimulus pairing and involuntary response?

Learning via CS–US pairing so CS elicits a reflexive CR. This process involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one to produce an involuntary response, forming the basis of Pavlovian learning.
What is vicarious reinforcement in observational learning?

Increased behavior after seeing a model rewarded for it. Observing positive outcomes motivates adoption of the behavior.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a fixed time interval if a response occurs.

Fixed-interval schedule. Time-based with scalloped response pattern near interval end.
What is a cognitive map?

A mental representation of spatial relationships. Tolman's rats developed these even without reinforcement.
What is a token economy in behavior modification?

System where tokens are earned and exchanged for reinforcers. This operant technique uses symbolic reinforcers to bridge delays, promoting desired behaviors in therapeutic or educational settings.
What is the difference between a fixed ratio and variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

Fixed: set responses; variable: unpredictable responses for reward. Fixed ratio provides reinforcement after a predictable number of responses, while variable ratio uses an average, leading to different response patterns.
What is the definition of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior frequency. Like scolding or giving extra work to discourage behavior.
What is a cognitive map in the context of spatial learning?

A mental representation of spatial relationships in an environment. Internal navigation system formed through environmental exploration.
What is self-efficacy in social cognitive theory?

Belief in one's ability to succeed at a specific task. Influences persistence and effort; shaped by past experiences.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

Fixed-ratio schedule. Predictable count creates steady response patterns.
What is the definition of an unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning?

Stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response. Triggers an automatic, unlearned response without prior conditioning.
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

Negative reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, whereas punishment aims to weaken it through adverse consequences.
What is the definition of a conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

Previously neutral stimulus that predicts the unconditioned stimulus. Through pairing, it gains the ability to trigger a learned response.
Which concept explains why behavior change is easier when outcomes are self-efficacy enhancing?

Self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to perform a behavior). Confidence in ability predicts successful behavior change.
What is insight learning as described by Gestalt psychologists?

Sudden problem solving via a new mental representation of relationships. Kohler's work illustrated how reorganization of perceptual elements leads to abrupt solutions, contrasting trial-and-error learning methods.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.

Fixed-ratio schedule. Every nth response earns reinforcement (e.g., every 5th).
What is extinction in operant conditioning?

Behavior decreases when reinforcement is withheld. Withholding reinforcement results in the gradual decline of the previously reinforced behavior in operant contexts.
What is negative punishment, stated in terms of adding or removing a stimulus?

Removing a valued stimulus to decrease a behavior. It involves withdrawing a desirable stimulus to diminish the occurrence of an unwanted behavior in operant paradigms.
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Initial learning of the CS–US association. The phase when the organism learns to connect CS and US.
Which term describes learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive stimulus?

Conditioned aversion (classical conditioning of an aversive response). Creates negative associations through classical conditioning.
What is vicarious punishment?

Decreased behavior after seeing a model punished. Observer avoids behaviors that led to negative outcomes for others.
What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes an aversive stimulus. Both increase behavior but through different mechanisms.
What is observational learning (social learning) in the context of behavior change?

Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive. Bandura's theory where behaviors are acquired through observation.
Which reinforcement schedule typically produces the highest, most persistent response rate?

Variable ratio schedule. It maintains high response rates due to unpredictability, mimicking addictive behaviors like gambling in operant conditioning schedules.
What is the definition of negative punishment in operant conditioning?

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is weakened by taking away something pleasant.
Identify the term for a sudden reappearance of a previously reinforced behavior during extinction.

Extinction burst. Temporary increase in responding when reinforcement stops.
What is the key difference between modeling and imitation in observational learning?

Modeling is demonstrating; imitation is copying the demonstrated act. One shows the behavior; the other replicates what was shown.
Which four processes did Bandura propose are required for observational learning?

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. ARRM: must notice, remember, be able to do, and want to do it.
What is the definition of classical conditioning in learning theory?

Learning by associating two stimuli so one predicts the other. Pavlov's dogs exemplify this pairing process.
What is vicarious reinforcement in social learning theory?

Increased behavior after observing another person being rewarded. Learning occurs by observing consequences to others.
What is insight learning?

A sudden realization of a problem's solution. Kohler's chimps solved problems through understanding, not trial-and-error.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time.

Variable-interval schedule. Unpredictable timing produces steady, moderate response rates.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a variable time interval if a response occurs.

Variable-interval schedule. Unpredictable timing produces steady, moderate response rates.
What is the Rescorla-Wagner model's key idea about prediction error?

Learning depends on surprise: mismatch between expected and actual US. Learning is strongest when outcomes violate expectations.
What is observational learning (social learning) according to Bandura?

Learning by watching others and modeling their behavior. Requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule. Unpredictable response count creates high, steady responding.
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Assimilation fits schemas; accommodation changes schemas. New info either fits existing mental structures or requires restructuring.
What is the overjustification effect in motivation and behavior change?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a task. Rewards can undermine natural enjoyment of activities.
What is the definition of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is weakened by presenting something unpleasant.
Identify the term for learning that a cue predicts an aversive event, producing fear responses.

Conditioned (learned) fear. This occurs through classical conditioning where a neutral cue paired with threat elicits anticipatory fear, underlying many anxiety responses.
Identify the attribution: "I failed because I am not smart," emphasizing an internal stable cause.

Internal, stable attribution (ability-based). Attributes failure to unchangeable personal characteristics.
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

Primary: innate value; secondary: learned value via association. Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biological needs inherently, while secondary ones gain value through classical conditioning associations.
What is the definition of negative punishment in operant conditioning?

Removing a desired stimulus to decrease behavior frequency. Like taking away privileges or toys.
Which option best defines self-efficacy in Bandura's social cognitive theory?

Belief in one's ability to perform behaviors needed to reach goals. It represents an individual's confidence in executing actions for desired outcomes, influencing motivation and persistence in social cognitive frameworks.
What is observational learning (social learning) as described by Bandura?

Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive. Bobo doll experiments showed children imitate observed aggression.
What is vicarious punishment in observational learning?

Decreased behavior after seeing a model punished for it. Observing negative consequences discourages the behavior.
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: internal interest; extrinsic: external reward or avoidance. One comes from within; the other from outside consequences.
What is the definition of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior frequency. Like stopping nagging when chores are done.
What is the definition of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is strengthened by ending something unpleasant.
Identify the behavior therapy that pairs relaxation with a feared stimulus in a graded hierarchy.

Systematic desensitization. Wolpe's technique uses counterconditioning by progressively exposing individuals to anxiety-provoking stimuli while inducing incompatible relaxation states.
What four processes are required for Bandura observational learning to occur?

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. ARRM: must notice, remember, be able to do, and want to do it.
What is higher-order (second-order) conditioning?

A CS becomes associated with a new stimulus, creating a new CS. The first CS can train a second neutral stimulus without the US.
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic is internal interest; extrinsic is external reward. Behavior driven by enjoyment vs. external consequences.
What is insight learning (Köhler) as a cognitive process in problem solving?

Sudden solution realization by reorganizing the problem mentally. "Aha!" moment when pieces suddenly fit together mentally.
What is the Premack principle as a behavior change rule?

High-probability behavior reinforces a low-probability behavior. This principle leverages preferred activities as reinforcers for less preferred ones, based on their relative probabilities in behavior modification.
What is reciprocal determinism?

Person, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other. Bandura's triadic model of bidirectional interactions.
What is outcome expectancy in social cognitive theory?

Belief that a behavior will lead to a specific outcome. Expectations about consequences influence behavior choices.
What is attribution theory primarily used to explain in behavior change?

How people explain causes of behavior and outcomes. Internal vs. external and stable vs. unstable causal beliefs.
Which schedule of reinforcement typically produces the highest, most persistent response rate?

Variable-ratio schedule. Gambling-like unpredictability creates strongest response patterns.
What is the definition of a conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning?

Learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Results from pairing CS with US during conditioning trials.
What is latent learning, and how is it typically revealed?

Learning without reinforcement, shown when incentive becomes available. Tolman's experiments showed that cognitive maps form without immediate rewards, emerging when motivation arises, challenging strict behaviorism.
What is the difference between modeling and imitation in observational learning?

Modeling is demonstrating; imitation is copying the model. Models perform behaviors; observers reproduce what they see.
Which reinforcement schedule produces the highest response rate and greatest resistance to extinction?

Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule. Unpredictable rewards create persistent responding.
What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior. Also called social learning; requires no direct reinforcement.
What is self-efficacy as used in theories of learning and behavior change?

Belief in one's ability to perform behaviors to reach a goal. Confidence in executing actions affects motivation and persistence.
What is the definition of operant conditioning in learning theory?

Learning in which consequences shape the likelihood of behavior. Skinner's work showed how rewards and punishments modify behavior.
What is positive punishment, stated in terms of adding or removing a stimulus?

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior. This form of punishment introduces an undesirable stimulus to reduce the likelihood of the behavior recurring in operant conditioning.
What is vicarious reinforcement?

Increased behavior after seeing a model rewarded. Observer learns from consequences experienced by the model.
What is operant conditioning defined as in terms of behavior and consequences?

Learning in which consequences shape voluntary behavior. It relies on rewards and punishments to modify voluntary actions, emphasizing the role of environmental consequences in behavior shaping.
What is equilibration in Piagetian cognitive development?

Restoring balance between schemas and new information. Cognitive conflict drives schema modification and learning.
Which concept explains why behavior change is more durable when reinforcement is gradually reduced over time?

Partial reinforcement effect. Intermittent reinforcement creates greater resistance to extinction.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a task. Paying for previously enjoyed activities decreases enjoyment.
Identify the attribution: "I failed because the test was unfair," emphasizing an external cause.

External attribution (situation-based). Blames circumstances rather than personal factors.

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