Motivation Theories and Biological Drives (7A) - Psych & Soc

Which option best fits Maslow: what need level includes belongingness, friendship, and intimacy?

Love and belonging needs. Third level after physiological and safety; social connection needs.
Which concept describes decreased intrinsic motivation after adding external rewards?

Overjustification effect. External rewards can undermine inherent interest in activities.
What is the primary limitation of drive reduction theory for explaining behavior?

It poorly explains behaviors without deficits (e.g., curiosity, risk-taking). Can't account for behaviors that increase arousal/tension.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in hunger and thirst regulation?

It integrates signals to regulate feeding, satiety, and fluid balance. Central control center for homeostatic drives.
What is the James–Lange view of emotion relevant to motivation?

Emotion follows perception of physiological arousal. We feel emotions because we perceive bodily changes first.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion regarding arousal and conscious feeling?

Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently. Thalamus triggers both bodily response and emotional experience together.
Identify the correct term: a stable, long-lasting disposition to achieve a goal (not a momentary state).

Trait. Enduring characteristic that motivates behavior across situations.
Which emotion theory requires both arousal and a cognitive label to produce emotion?

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Emphasizes cognitive interpretation of physiological state.
What does drive reduction theory propose motivates behavior?

Behavior reduces physiological drives to maintain homeostasis. Organisms act to reduce tension from unmet biological needs.
Identify the key idea of Maslow hierarchy of needs relevant to motivation theories.

Lower needs are prioritized before higher needs like esteem and self-actualization. Basic needs (food, safety) must be met before pursuing growth needs.
What effect does leptin typically have on appetite and energy balance?

Decreases appetite and increases energy expenditure signals. Fat cells release leptin to signal fullness to the brain.
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs (core idea)?

Lower needs must be met before higher growth needs motivate behavior. Hierarchical progression from survival to self-actualization.
Which theory most directly predicts misattribution of arousal across situations?

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Arousal from one source can be mislabeled as a different emotion.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in hunger and thirst regulation?

Integrates internal signals and coordinates feeding and drinking behavior. Brain region monitors energy balance and triggers appropriate behaviors.
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs (general ordering)?

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. Basic needs must be met before pursuing higher ones.
Which option best distinguishes a push factor from a pull factor in motivation?

Push: internal drive; Pull: external incentive. Push factors originate internally; pull factors are environmental.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously and independently. It argues that thalamic signals trigger both emotional feelings and physical reactions concurrently.
Which theory best explains working harder when a bonus is offered for performance?

Incentive theory. External rewards motivate behavior changes.
What is the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion = physiological arousal plus a cognitive label. We interpret arousal based on context to determine emotion.
What does incentive theory propose primarily motivates behavior?

External rewards and avoidance of punishments. Focuses on environmental pull factors rather than internal push factors.
What does arousal theory predict about performance at very low arousal levels?

Performance tends to be low due to underarousal. Insufficient stimulation leads to poor task execution.
What is secondary reinforcement?

Learned reinforcement via association with primary reinforcers (for example, money). Gains value through pairing with primary reinforcers.
What is intrinsic motivation?

Engaging in a behavior for inherent enjoyment or interest. Self-driven by personal satisfaction, not external factors.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion in one sentence?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Body and emotions activate together, not sequentially.
Which option best describes the James–Lange theory of emotion?

Emotion follows perception of physiological arousal. We feel afraid because we notice our heart racing.
What does incentive theory emphasize as the main source of motivation?

External rewards and environmental cues that pull behavior. Motivation comes from outside stimuli, not internal needs.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives?

Maintenance of internal physiological variables within narrow optimal ranges. Body regulates temperature, pH, glucose, etc. for survival.
Identify the correct term: motivation to satisfy hunger when blood glucose is low.

Drive-reduction (need-based) motivation. Low glucose creates physiological need driving eating behavior.
What is the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion = physiological arousal plus a cognitive label for the context. Same arousal can produce different emotions based on cognitive interpretation.
Which option best fits Maslow: what need level includes food, water, and thermoregulation?

Physiological needs (base of the hierarchy). Most basic survival needs must be met before higher needs emerge.
What is the primary role of leptin in appetite regulation?

Satiety hormone from adipose tissue that decreases appetite. Signals adequate energy stores to suppress hunger.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion in one sentence?

Physiological arousal occurs first; emotion is the perception of that arousal. We feel emotions by interpreting our body's physical responses.
Identify the motivation type: studying due to curiosity and enjoyment of learning.

Intrinsic motivation. This type stems from internal rewards like personal interest, leading to sustained engagement.
What hormone produced by the stomach increases hunger and is called the 'hunger hormone'?

Ghrelin. Released when stomach is empty; stimulates appetite.
What is the key difference between a need and a drive in drive reduction theory?

Need is deprivation; drive is the aroused state pushing action. Need creates the drive; drive is the motivated state that prompts behavior.
What does Maslow's hierarchy propose about the order of human needs?

Lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs dominate. Basic survival needs take priority over social and self-fulfillment needs.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with satiety signaling?

Ventromedial hypothalamus. Stimulation here inhibits eating and signals fullness.
What is leptin and what motivational state does it signal?

Adipose-derived hormone signaling energy sufficiency; promotes satiety. "Fullness hormone" from fat cells suppresses appetite.
What is the key distinction between a drive and an incentive?

Drive is internal physiological tension; incentive is external reward cue. Drives push from within; incentives pull from environment.
Which level of Maslow's hierarchy includes financial security and protection from harm?

Safety needs. Second level focuses on security and stability in life.
Which theory best explains thrill-seeking that increases arousal above baseline?

Arousal theory. Explains seeking stimulation when understimulated.
Which theory states behavior is motivated by maintaining optimal arousal, not minimal arousal?

Arousal theory. People seek stimulation, not just drive reduction.
Which option best describes self-determination theory's core psychological needs?

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Meeting these needs promotes well-being and intrinsic motivation.
What is the definition of a secondary (learned) drive?

Drive acquired through learning and reinforcement (for example, money). Not biologically necessary but motivates through conditioning.
What is the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion = physiological arousal plus a cognitive label for the context. Emotional experience results from interpreting physiological changes within situational context.
What is a primary drive (primary need) in motivation?

Innate biological need (e.g., hunger, thirst, sleep). Essential for survival and not learned through experience.
Identify the theory: arousal occurs, then the person interprets context to label emotion.

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Two-factor theory requires both arousal and cognitive interpretation.
What is the key distinction between drive reduction and incentive theories?

Drive: internal tension reduction; Incentive: external goal attraction. Drives push from within; incentives pull from outside.
What is drive reduction theory of motivation?

Motivation arises from reducing internal physiological tension (drives). Homeostasis is restored by satisfying biological needs.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion?

Emotion follows perception of physiological arousal. We feel emotions because we interpret our body's physical responses.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and performance?

Performance is highest at moderate arousal; too low or too high impairs it. Inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and task performance.
Which schedule of reinforcement produces the greatest resistance to extinction?

Variable ratio schedule. Unpredictable rewards create persistent responding due to uncertainty.
What is the primary role of ghrelin in appetite regulation?

Hunger hormone that increases appetite (signals energy deficit). Released by empty stomach to stimulate eating behavior.
Which hormone, released by the stomach, increases hunger and food intake?

Ghrelin. "Hunger hormone" from empty stomach stimulates appetite.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion in one sentence?

Emotion follows perception of physiological arousal. We feel emotions after noticing body changes.
Which option best distinguishes anorexigenic from orexigenic signals?

Anorexigenic decreases appetite; orexigenic increases appetite. Anorexigenic suppresses eating; orexigenic stimulates eating.
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptually organized around?

Progression from basic physiological needs to self-actualization. Lower needs must be met before pursuing higher ones.
What is the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: internal satisfaction; extrinsic: external reward/pressure. Intrinsic comes from enjoyment; extrinsic from consequences.
Identify the theory: "Arousal occurs, then the person labels it to feel emotion."

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Requires both arousal and cognitive labeling for emotion.
What is the core claim of expectancy-value theory of motivation?

Motivation depends on expected success and value of the goal. Combines probability of success with outcome desirability.
What is homeostasis in the context of motivation and biological drives?

Maintenance of stable internal conditions via feedback mechanisms. Body maintains equilibrium through negative feedback loops.
Which level of Maslow's hierarchy is most basic?

Physiological needs (food, water, sleep, thermoregulation). Survival needs form the foundation of the hierarchy.
What is the definition of motivation in psychology?

Processes that initiate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior. Encompasses the why, how, and persistence of purposeful actions.
Identify the hormone released by fat cells that signals satiety and long-term energy stores.

Leptin. Adipose tissue hormone that suppresses appetite when energy is sufficient.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in biological drives?

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and endocrine control. Master control center for homeostatic drives and hormones.
What is drive reduction theory of motivation?

Motivation arises from reducing physiological drives to maintain homeostasis. Body seeks equilibrium by satisfying needs like hunger/thirst.
What does drive reduction theory propose is the primary source of motivation?

Motivation to reduce internal tension from unmet biological needs. Theory states unmet needs create tension that drives behavior to restore balance.
What does arousal theory propose about the relationship between arousal and performance?

People seek an optimal level of arousal for best performance. Too little or too much arousal impairs performance.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion in terms of timing of arousal and emotion?

Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently. Thalamus triggers both bodily response and emotional experience together.
What is incentive theory of motivation?

External rewards or punishments pull behavior toward goals. Environmental stimuli motivate behavior through anticipated consequences.
What does the overjustification effect describe?

External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation for a task. Adding rewards to enjoyable tasks can decrease inherent interest.
What is the difference between a drive and an incentive?

Drive is internal physiological tension; incentive is an external motivating stimulus. Drives push from within; incentives pull from outside.
What is the correct order of Maslow's needs from lowest to highest?

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. Pyramid structure from basic survival to personal growth needs.
What is leptin's primary effect on appetite and energy balance?

Signals satiety; decreases appetite as fat stores increase. Hormone from fat cells that suppresses hunger long-term.
What does arousal theory propose about optimal performance and motivation?

People seek an optimal level of arousal, not maximal arousal. Too little or too much arousal decreases performance.
What is self-determination theory (SDT) of motivation?

Motivation depends on autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs. Three psychological needs drive intrinsic motivation.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion in terms of sequence of events?

Physiological arousal occurs first, then emotion is experienced. We feel emotions because we perceive our bodily reactions.
What does drive reduction theory propose motivates behavior when a physiological need exists?

Behavior reduces an internal drive to restore homeostasis. Body seeks equilibrium; drives push us to satisfy needs and return to balance.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with initiating hunger?

Lateral hypothalamus. Stimulation here triggers feeding behavior and hunger sensations.
What is ghrelin and what does it generally signal to the brain?

A stomach-derived hormone that increases hunger before meals. Released when stomach is empty to stimulate appetite.
What is a primary drive (biological drive) in motivation theory?

An innate drive based on biological needs (for example, hunger). Unlearned drives stem from survival needs like food and water.
What effect does ghrelin typically have on hunger and eating behavior?

Increases hunger and promotes food intake. Stomach releases ghrelin when empty to signal hunger.
Which type of task is most likely to require lower arousal for optimal performance?

Complex or difficult tasks. Difficult tasks need calm focus; simple tasks benefit from higher arousal.
What is the ventromedial hypothalamus primarily associated with in feeding behavior?

Satiety and stopping eating. Lesions here cause hyperphagia (overeating).
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with initiating eating behavior?

Lateral hypothalamus. Stimulation triggers feeding; damage causes aphagia.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives?

Maintenance of internal physiological equilibrium around set points. Body systems self-regulate to maintain stable internal conditions.
What is a drive as defined in drive reduction theory?

An aroused state from a physiological need that motivates action. Hunger creates a drive state that motivates food-seeking behavior.
What is the set point theory of body weight regulation?

Body weight is regulated around a biologically influenced baseline level. It suggests the body defends a genetically and environmentally determined weight through metabolic adjustments.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with satiety signaling?

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). VMH activation suppresses eating behavior.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion?

Physiological arousal comes first; emotion is the interpretation of arousal. It proposes that bodily responses precede and cause the subjective experience of emotions.
What hormone released by adipose tissue promotes satiety and reduced food intake?

Leptin. "Satiety hormone" signals energy stores are adequate.
Identify the effect: Paying a child for drawing reduces later voluntary drawing.

Overjustification effect. Reward undermines child's intrinsic enjoyment of drawing.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law predict about arousal and performance?

Performance is highest at intermediate arousal (inverted-U relation). Complex tasks need lower arousal; simple tasks need higher.
What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation to do an activity for external rewards or outcomes. Driven by consequences separate from the activity itself.
What is the core claim of drive reduction theory of motivation?

Behavior reduces internal tension from physiological needs (drives). Organisms act to restore equilibrium when needs create drives.
What does arousal theory predict people seek with respect to stimulation level?

An optimal level of arousal; too low or too high reduces performance. Performance peaks at moderate arousal; boredom and overstimulation both impair function.
What does self-determination theory identify as three basic psychological needs?

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. SDT posits these needs drive human motivation universally.
What is the difference between primary and secondary drives?

Primary: innate biological; secondary: learned through association. Primary drives are unlearned; secondary are conditioned.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with initiating feeding behavior?

Lateral hypothalamus. Stimulation triggers hunger; lesions cause aphagia.
What does arousal theory propose about the relationship between arousal and performance?

People seek an optimal level of arousal for best performance. Neither too much nor too little arousal; moderate levels optimize functioning.
What is the hypothalamus's general role in biological drives?

Regulates homeostasis and drives such as hunger, thirst, and sex. Central control center for basic survival drives.
What is an incentive in motivation theory?

An external reward or stimulus that pulls behavior. Unlike internal drives, incentives are environmental motivators.
Which hormone rises after sleep deprivation and is associated with increased hunger?

Ghrelin. Sleep loss increases this hunger hormone, promoting weight gain.
What is drive-reduction theory of motivation?

Behavior is motivated to reduce physiological drives and restore homeostasis. This theory posits that physiological needs create drives, prompting behaviors to alleviate tension and achieve balance.
What does instinct theory propose as the primary cause of behavior?

Innate, biologically programmed behaviors (instincts) drive actions. Early theory attributing complex behaviors to fixed action patterns.
What does the James–Lange theory claim about the order of emotion and physiological arousal?

Arousal occurs first; emotion is the perception of arousal. We feel emotions because we perceive our bodily changes.
What is the Yerkes–Dodson law relating arousal and task performance?

Moderate arousal is optimal; harder tasks need lower arousal. Inverted U-curve shows peak performance at medium arousal levels.
What does arousal theory propose about the relationship between arousal and motivation?

People seek an optimal level of arousal; behavior adjusts arousal. Too little boredom, too much anxiety; we seek the middle.
Which theory best explains eating from the smell of popcorn despite being full?

Incentive theory. External stimulus (smell) motivates behavior despite no internal drive.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and performance?

Performance peaks at moderate arousal; too low or too high impairs it. Inverted U-shaped curve shows optimal performance at moderate arousal.
Identify the concept: external rewards reduce an intrinsically motivated behavior.

Overjustification effect. Paying for enjoyed activities can decrease intrinsic motivation.
What does the Cannon–Bard theory propose about emotion and arousal timing?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Thalamus triggers both body response and emotional experience together.
What hormone released by fat cells signals satiety and long-term energy stores?

Leptin. "Satiety hormone" suppresses appetite when fat stores adequate.
What does incentive theory propose is the main source of motivation?

External rewards and avoidance of punishments. Behavior is pulled by environmental stimuli rather than pushed by needs.
Which option best describes the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Thalamus triggers both emotional and physical responses together.
Which option best describes the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: internal enjoyment; extrinsic: external reward/punishment. Intrinsic comes from within; extrinsic from outside consequences.
Which option best describes the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion = arousal plus cognitive label of the situation. Same arousal can produce different emotions based on context.
What is the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) sequence in response to stress?

Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. Body's three-stage response to prolonged stressors.
Identify the term for a circadian hormone that promotes sleepiness at night.

Melatonin. Pineal gland secretes it in darkness to induce sleep.
Which brain structure serves as a key circadian pacemaker for sleep–wake cycles?

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Receives light input to synchronize body rhythms with day-night cycle.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives and motivation?

Physiological tendency to maintain internal equilibrium (set points). Body maintains stable conditions like temperature and blood sugar.
Which need level in Maslow's hierarchy includes food, water, and sleep?

Physiological needs. Base of hierarchy: survival requirements like hunger and thirst.
What does the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory require to experience emotion?

Physiological arousal plus a cognitive label of the situation. We interpret arousal based on context to determine the emotion.
What is intrinsic motivation?

Motivation to do an activity for its inherent satisfaction. Driven by enjoyment, interest, or personal fulfillment.
What is a homeostatic drive in motivation theory?

A physiological impulse to restore internal balance (homeostasis). Body seeks equilibrium through biological needs.
What is arousal theory of motivation?

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal. Individuals seek to avoid under- or over-stimulation by engaging in activities that adjust arousal levels.
What is homeostasis in the context of motivation and biological drives?

Internal physiological stability maintained by regulatory processes. Body maintains stable internal conditions through feedback mechanisms.
Which option best matches the need type: food and water in Maslow hierarchy?

Physiological needs. Base of Maslow's pyramid; must be met before higher needs.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and performance?

Performance is highest at moderate arousal; too low or high impairs. Inverted U-shape: peak performance at intermediate arousal.
What does drive-reduction theory state motivates behavior when a need is unmet?

Behavior reduces physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Unmet needs create tension that organisms act to reduce.
What is incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is driven by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. Focus on environmental stimuli rather than internal needs.
What is secondary motivation (secondary drive) in MCAT psychology terms?

Learned motives tied to rewards (e.g., money, status, achievement). Acquired through conditioning and association with primary drives.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation for a behavior. Rewards can undermine inherent enjoyment of activities.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in hunger and satiety regulation?

Integrates hormonal and neural signals to coordinate hunger and fullness. Central hub receiving metabolic signals to control eating behavior.
What is the core claim of incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is driven by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. Environmental stimuli pull behavior toward goals.
Which need is at the base of Maslow's hierarchy?

Physiological needs (food, water, sleep). Survival needs come first in the motivational hierarchy.
Identify the hormone most associated with increased hunger signaling from the stomach.

Ghrelin. Stomach hormone that rises before meals and stimulates appetite.
Which option best describes the role of the nucleus accumbens in motivation?

Reward processing and reinforcement via dopaminergic signaling. Part of brain's reward circuit; dopamine mediates motivation.
What is drive reduction theory of motivation?

Behavior is motivated by reducing internal physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Body seeks equilibrium by satisfying needs like hunger or thirst.
What hormone secreted by the stomach increases hunger and food intake?

Ghrelin. "Hunger hormone" rises before meals, stimulates appetite.
What does arousal theory propose about the relationship between arousal and performance?

People seek an optimal arousal level to maximize performance. Too little or too much arousal impairs performance; we seek balance.
What is the difference between primary and secondary drives in motivation?

Primary are biological; secondary are learned (e.g., money). Primary drives are innate survival needs; secondary are acquired.
What is leptin and what does it generally signal to the brain?

An adipose-derived hormone signaling energy sufficiency (satiety). Fat cells release leptin to suppress appetite.
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: internal enjoyment; extrinsic: external reward or punishment. Intrinsic arises from personal satisfaction, while extrinsic depends on outside consequences.
What is primary reinforcement?

Reinforcement that satisfies a biological need (for example, food, water). Directly satisfies survival needs without prior learning.
Which stomach-derived hormone increases appetite and is highest before meals?

Ghrelin. Stomach releases this "hunger hormone" when empty.
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

A progression from basic physiological needs to self-actualization. It organizes human needs into a pyramid where lower levels must be met before higher ones motivate behavior.
What is the definition of a primary (biological) drive?

Innate drive based on physiological needs (for example, hunger, thirst). Unlearned drives essential for survival and homeostasis.
What is the core claim of instinct theory of motivation?

Motivation arises from innate, biologically programmed behaviors (instincts). Instincts are fixed action patterns triggered by specific stimuli.
What is the primary distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: driven by internal enjoyment; extrinsic: driven by external outcomes. Internal satisfaction vs. external rewards/consequences.
What is the core claim of arousal theory of motivation?

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Too much or too little stimulation motivates behavior change.
Which option best describes avoidance–avoidance conflict?

A choice must be made between two undesirable alternatives. Choosing between two negative options creates stress.
What is extrinsic motivation?

Engaging in a behavior for external rewards or to avoid punishment. Driven by outcomes separate from the activity itself.
What is a drive in drive-reduction theory?

An aroused state from a physiological need that motivates tension reduction. Biological needs create drives that organisms seek to reduce.
What does incentive theory propose is the primary source of motivation?

External rewards and avoidance of external punishments. Behavior is pulled by incentives rather than pushed by internal drives.
What is incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is driven by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. This approach emphasizes how positive or negative external factors influence behavioral choices.
What is incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is motivated by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. External stimuli (money, praise) drive behavior, not internal needs.
Identify the motivation type: studying primarily to obtain a scholarship reward.

Extrinsic motivation. This type relies on external incentives, which can motivate but may not foster long-term interest.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with promoting hunger?

Lateral hypothalamus (LH). LH stimulation triggers feeding behavior.
What does incentive theory emphasize as the main source of motivation?

External rewards and environmental cues that attract behavior. Theory focuses on environmental stimuli rather than internal states.
What is the primary effect of leptin on eating behavior?

Decreases hunger by signaling energy sufficiency from fat stores. "Satiety hormone" produced by adipose tissue.
What is the correct order of Maslow levels from lowest to highest?

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. The hierarchy prioritizes survival needs first, progressing to psychological and self-fulfillment needs.
What is the hypothalamus's central role in motivation and biological drives?

Regulates hunger, thirst, sex, and autonomic/endocrine homeostasis. Master control center for basic survival drives.
Which need level in Maslow's hierarchy includes belongingness and love?

Love and belonging needs. Middle level: social connections and intimate relationships.
What is the key idea of the Yerkes–Dodson law about arousal and performance?

Performance is best at moderate arousal; too low or too high impairs it. Inverted U-shape relationship between arousal and performance.
What is ghrelin and what effect does it have on appetite?

Stomach hormone that signals hunger; increases appetite. Secreted by the stomach, it stimulates hunger signals to the hypothalamus to promote eating.
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs in terms of general ordering?

Physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization. Lower needs must be met before higher needs become motivating.
What is the difference between a need and a drive in drive reduction theory?

Need is deprivation; drive is the aroused state that motivates behavior. Need creates the drive; drive energizes behavior to satisfy the need.
Which option best describes the set point theory of body weight regulation?

Body weight is regulated around a biologically predetermined target level. Metabolism adjusts to defend a genetically influenced weight.
Identify the correct term: desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward or avoid punishment.

Extrinsic motivation. Behavior driven by consequences rather than inherent satisfaction.
What is the lateral hypothalamus primarily associated with in feeding behavior?

Initiation of eating (hunger). Lesions here cause aphagia (loss of eating).
Which part of the brain is the primary regulator of hunger and satiety signals?

Hypothalamus. Contains lateral (hunger) and ventromedial (satiety) centers.
What is the set point theory of body weight regulation?

Body weight is defended around a biologically influenced set point. Metabolism adjusts to maintain genetically influenced weight.
What is a secondary drive in motivation theory?

A learned drive associated with primary drives (for example, money). Acquired through conditioning; satisfy primary drives indirectly.
What is the core claim of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

Lower needs generally must be met before higher-level needs dominate. Pyramid structure from basic survival to self-actualization.
Identify the correct term: the body's defended weight range maintained by metabolism and appetite.

Set point. Body resists weight changes through metabolic adjustments.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in hunger and other basic drives?

Regulating homeostatic drives such as hunger, thirst, and temperature. Central brain structure maintaining body's internal balance.
What does incentive theory propose as a major cause of motivated behavior?

External rewards and goals (incentives) pull behavior toward them. Environmental stimuli motivate approach behaviors.
What does the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory require to experience emotion?

Physiological arousal plus a cognitive label of that arousal. We interpret arousal based on context to determine which emotion we feel.
What does the James–Lange theory claim is the sequence of emotion and arousal?

Physiological arousal occurs first, then emotion is experienced. We feel emotions because we perceive our bodily changes.
Which hormone released by adipose tissue signals long-term energy stores and satiety?

Leptin. "Satiety hormone" - levels correlate with body fat percentage.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law describe about arousal and performance?

An inverted-U relation between arousal and performance. Performance peaks at moderate arousal, forming an inverted-U shaped curve.
What is the key limitation of drive reduction theory for explaining human behavior?

It poorly explains behaviors not tied to physiological needs. Can't explain curiosity, thrill-seeking, or social motivations.
Which theory best explains thrill-seeking that increases arousal above baseline?

Arousal theory. Explains seeking stimulation when under-aroused.
What is the ventromedial hypothalamus classically associated with in hunger regulation?

Satiety signaling; lesions classically increase feeding. "Satiety center" - damage causes hyperphagia (overeating).
Which Maslow level includes hunger, thirst, and sleep?

Physiological needs. These foundational needs address basic survival requirements essential for physiological functioning.
Which level of Maslow's hierarchy includes food, water, and thermoregulation?

Physiological needs. Most basic level includes biological necessities for survival.
What does the Cannon–Bard theory claim about timing of arousal and emotion?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Brain triggers both emotional experience and bodily response together.
What is ghrelin and what motivational state does it signal?

Stomach-derived hormone signaling energy need; increases hunger. "Hunger hormone" from empty stomach stimulates appetite.
What is homeostasis in the context of motivation and biological drives?

Maintenance of internal physiological equilibrium. Body's tendency to maintain stable internal conditions like temperature and pH.
Which option best completes the Yerkes–Dodson prediction for a difficult task: arousal should be ____.

Lower (optimal arousal shifts downward as task difficulty increases). Complex tasks require calm focus; simple tasks benefit from higher arousal.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and performance?

Performance is optimal at moderate arousal; too low or high impairs it. Inverted U-shaped curve shows best performance at medium arousal.
Which theory best explains behavior driven by money, grades, or social approval?

Incentive theory. These are all external incentives that pull behavior toward goals.
Which option best fits Yerkes–Dodson: difficult task performance is highest at what arousal level?

Lower arousal than for easy tasks. Complex tasks require lower arousal for optimal performance.
Which theory explains motivation as seeking an optimal level of arousal?

Arousal theory (optimal arousal). People seek stimulation levels that maximize performance and comfort.
What does drive reduction theory propose is the primary motivator of behavior?

Reduction of physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Theory states behaviors aim to reduce internal tensions from unmet needs.
What is the key claim of incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is motivated by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. Focuses on environmental stimuli rather than internal states as motivators.
What does the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory require for emotion?

Physiological arousal plus a cognitive label (context-based appraisal). We interpret arousal based on situational cues to feel emotion.
What is the Yerkes–Dodson law relating arousal and performance?

Performance is highest at moderate arousal; too low or high impairs performance. It describes an inverted-U relationship where optimal performance occurs at intermediate arousal levels.
Which schedule of reinforcement produces the greatest resistance to extinction?

Variable ratio schedule. Unpredictable rewards after varying responses maintain behavior longest.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with promoting hunger and feeding behavior?

Lateral hypothalamus. LH stimulation triggers eating; damage causes aphagia.
What is primary motivation (primary drive) in MCAT psychology terms?

Biologically based motives (e.g., hunger, thirst, thermoregulation). Innate, survival-based drives present from birth.
Which task type is best supported by lower arousal under the Yerkes–Dodson law?

Complex, novel, or difficult tasks. Lower arousal prevents anxiety from interfering with concentration on challenging tasks.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with hunger and feeding behavior?

Lateral hypothalamus. Stimulation triggers eating; lesions cause aphagia.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation for an already-enjoyed task. Paying someone for their hobby makes it feel like work.
What is a drive, as defined by drive reduction theory?

An aversive internal state from a physiological need. Unmet needs create uncomfortable tension that motivates behavior.
What does the Cannon–Bard theory claim about emotion and physiological arousal timing?

Emotion and arousal occur simultaneously and independently. Thalamus sends signals to cortex and body at the same time.
Which hormone, released by adipose tissue, signals satiety and long-term energy stores?

Leptin. Fat cells release it to suppress appetite when energy sufficient.
What is the hypothalamus's primary role in motivation and biological drives?

Regulates homeostatic drives such as hunger, thirst, and sex. Contains nuclei that control basic survival drives and maintain balance.
What is incentive theory of motivation?

Behavior is motivated by external rewards and avoidance of punishments. External stimuli drive behavior, not internal states.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for an already enjoyable task. Providing unnecessary rewards can shift focus from internal enjoyment to external gains, diminishing interest.
Which option best fits Yerkes–Dodson: simple task performance is highest at what arousal level?

Higher arousal than for difficult tasks. Simple tasks benefit from higher arousal levels.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with satiety and stopping eating?

Ventromedial hypothalamus. Stimulation stops eating; damage causes hyperphagia.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives and motivation?

Maintenance of internal physiological stability around set points. Body maintains optimal levels of temperature, fluids, and nutrients.
What is an incentive in motivation theory?

An external stimulus that pulls behavior toward a goal. Incentives provide external motivation by offering rewards or avoiding negative outcomes to direct actions.
Which hormone is most associated with increased hunger before meals: leptin or ghrelin?

Ghrelin. Ghrelin levels rise before meals to trigger hunger, unlike leptin which signals fullness.
What is self-determination theory's main claim about motivation?

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness support intrinsic motivation. These three psychological needs foster internal motivation.
Which theory best explains misattribution of arousal (e.g., arousal labeled as attraction)?

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Cognitive labeling of arousal determines the emotion experienced.
Which theory states behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce tension from unmet needs?

Drive reduction theory. Unmet needs create tension that motivates behavior to reduce it.
What is self-actualization in Maslow's theory?

Realizing one's full potential and pursuing personal growth. It represents the pinnacle of personal development where individuals strive for peak experiences.
What is arousal theory of motivation?

People seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal for performance. Too little boredom, too much anxiety; moderate is ideal.
Which emotion theory most emphasizes misattribution of arousal based on context?

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Context determines how we interpret physiological arousal.
Identify the correct term: desire to perform an activity for its own enjoyment.

Intrinsic motivation. Internal satisfaction drives the behavior, not external rewards.
What is a secondary drive (secondary need) in motivation?

Learned need tied to rewards (e.g., money, status). Acquired through conditioning and association with primary drives.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for an already-enjoyed task. Shifts attribution from internal to external motivation.
What is the main function of the hypothalamus in motivation and drives?

Regulates homeostasis and basic drives (hunger, thirst, sex, temperature). As a key brain structure, it integrates signals to maintain equilibrium and drive-related behaviors.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Thalamus triggers both emotional and physical responses at same time.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and performance?

Performance is highest at intermediate arousal; too low or high impairs it. Inverted U-shape: best performance at moderate arousal.
What is homeostasis in the context of motivation and biological drives?

Maintenance of internal physiological equilibrium (set points). Body maintains stable internal conditions like temperature and blood sugar.
What is the James–Lange theory of emotion in terms of arousal and conscious feeling?

Emotion follows physiological arousal and its interpretation. We feel emotions because we perceive our bodily changes.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives and motivation?

Physiological regulation that maintains internal stability near set points. Body maintains stable conditions (temperature, pH) through negative feedback loops.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a behavior. Paying for previously enjoyed activities can undermine enjoyment.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and task performance?

Inverted-U: moderate arousal maximizes performance. Performance peaks at moderate arousal, forming an inverted-U curve.
Which need level in Maslow's hierarchy includes food, water, and sleep?

Physiological needs. Most basic survival needs at pyramid's base.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law state about arousal and task performance?

Performance peaks at moderate arousal; too low or high impairs it. Inverted U-shaped curve shows best performance at intermediate arousal levels.
Identify the correct term: motivation to avoid failure by choosing easy tasks.

Performance-avoidance orientation. Protecting self-esteem by avoiding challenging situations.
What does drive reduction theory propose is the primary motivator of behavior?

Reducing physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Theory states unmet needs create tension that motivates behavior to restore balance.
What is the primary effect of ghrelin on eating behavior?

Increases hunger and promotes food intake. "Hunger hormone" released by empty stomach.
Which Maslow level includes security, stability, and protection?

Safety needs. This level focuses on establishing a secure environment to protect against harm and uncertainty.
What does incentive theory propose is the primary motivator of behavior?

External rewards and the desire to obtain incentives. Focuses on pull of external stimuli rather than internal drives.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives?

Maintenance of internal physiological variables within an optimal range. It ensures stability by regulating variables like temperature and fluid levels through feedback mechanisms.
Which theory explains motivation as maximizing rewards and minimizing costs?

Incentive theory. External rewards and punishments guide behavior choices.
What is the overjustification effect?

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a previously enjoyed task. Rewards can undermine natural interest in activities.
What is homeostasis in the context of motivation and drives?

Physiological regulation to maintain internal variables near set points. Body actively maintains stable conditions like temperature and pH.
What is the key limitation of drive-reduction theory for explaining human behavior?

It poorly explains behaviors not aimed at reducing drives (e.g., curiosity). Can't account for behaviors that increase arousal or tension.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with satiety and stopping eating?

Ventromedial hypothalamus. VMH signals fullness; damage leads to overeating and obesity.
What does drive reduction theory propose is the primary motivator of behavior?

Reducing physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Theory states unmet needs create tension that organisms seek to reduce.
What is ghrelin's primary effect on appetite?

Signals hunger; increases appetite when the stomach is empty. Stomach hormone that stimulates appetite before meals.
Identify the correct term: a stable target value for a physiological variable.

Set point. Homeostatic reference point the body defends.
What does instinct theory propose as the primary source of human motivation?

Innate, biologically programmed behaviors (instincts) drive action. Early theory that fixed action patterns explain complex behaviors.
Which hypothalamic region is classically associated with satiety (stopping eating)?

Ventromedial hypothalamus. Stimulation stops eating; lesions cause hyperphagia.
Which hormone produced by the stomach increases hunger and food intake?

Ghrelin. "Hunger hormone" - levels rise before meals and fall after eating.
What is self-actualization in Maslow hierarchy of needs?

Achieving one's full potential and personal growth. Highest level represents fulfilling one's unique capabilities.
Which hormone from adipose tissue signals long-term satiety by inhibiting appetite?

Leptin. Fat cells release this to suppress hunger when energy stores are high.
Identify the term for decreased intrinsic motivation after adding external rewards.

Overjustification effect. External rewards can undermine existing intrinsic interest.
What does the Yerkes–Dodson law predict about arousal and performance?

An inverted-U relation: moderate arousal maximizes performance. Peak performance occurs at intermediate arousal levels.
Which task type is best supported by higher arousal under the Yerkes–Dodson law?

Simple or well-learned tasks. Higher arousal enhances focus and efficiency for tasks requiring less cognitive effort.
What is arousal theory (Yerkes–Dodson law) in motivation?

Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal; too low or too high impairs performance. Inverted U-curve: peak performance at medium arousal levels.
Which motivation theory best explains behavior driven by external rewards rather than internal needs?

Incentive theory. Focuses on environmental pulls rather than internal pushes.
What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion in one sentence?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously and independently. Challenges James-Lange by proposing parallel rather than sequential processing.
Which theory best explains drinking water to reduce thirst and restore balance?

Drive-reduction theory. Classic example of reducing physiological imbalance.
Which theory best fits: identical arousal can be labeled as fear or excitement depending on context?

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory. Context determines how we label physiological arousal.
What is the mesolimbic dopamine pathway most associated with?

Reward, reinforcement learning, and incentive salience (wanting). Dopamine pathway from VTA to nucleus accumbens drives motivation.
What is the lateral hypothalamus classically associated with in hunger regulation?

Initiation of eating; lesions classically reduce feeding. "Feeding center" - damage causes aphagia (lack of eating).
Which theory best explains studying harder when a scholarship reward is offered?

Incentive theory. External reward (scholarship) motivates behavior, not internal drive.
Identify the hormone released by the posterior pituitary that promotes water retention.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin). ADH causes kidneys to reabsorb water when dehydrated.
What is the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion in one sentence?

Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label of the context. Same arousal + different context = different emotions.
Identify the concept: A behavior persists because it is followed by a desired outcome.

Positive reinforcement (operant conditioning). Adding a pleasant stimulus increases behavior frequency.
What is the Schachter–Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion = arousal plus cognitive label based on context. We interpret arousal based on situational cues to determine emotion.
What is the role of the nucleus accumbens in motivated behavior?

Key reward-region mediating reinforcement and reward-seeking behavior. Part of brain's reward circuit activated by pleasurable stimuli.
What does drive reduction theory propose is the primary goal of motivated behavior?

Reducing physiological drives to restore homeostasis. Theory emphasizes returning to equilibrium by satisfying biological needs.
Identify the brain structure most associated with basic drives such as hunger and thirst.

Hypothalamus. Controls homeostatic drives and regulates basic survival behaviors.
What is arousal theory of motivation (Yerkes–Dodson framework)?

People seek an optimal level of arousal; performance varies with arousal. Too little or too much arousal impairs performance.
What is leptin and what effect does it have on appetite?

Adipose hormone that signals satiety; decreases appetite. Produced by fat cells, it informs the brain of energy stores to suppress food intake.
What is homeostasis in the context of biological drives?

Maintenance of stable internal physiological conditions around set points. Body maintains optimal ranges for temperature, pH, glucose, etc.
What is the difference between a drive and an incentive in motivation theory?

Drive: internal tension; incentive: external goal that pulls behavior. Drives push from within; incentives pull from outside.
What does Maslow place at the base of the hierarchy of needs?

Physiological needs (food, water, sleep). Basic survival needs must be met before higher needs emerge.
What is the core claim of instinct theory of motivation?

Motivation is driven by innate, biologically programmed instincts. Theory emphasizes fixed, species-specific behavioral patterns.
Which option best describes approach–avoidance conflict?

A single goal has both attractive and aversive aspects. Want the outcome but fear the consequences (e.g., surgery).
What hormone secreted by the stomach increases hunger signals to the brain?

Ghrelin. "Hunger hormone" rises before meals, stimulates appetite.
What hormone produced by adipose tissue signals satiety and long-term energy stores?

Leptin. Fat cells release it to suppress appetite when energy stores are high.

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