Memory Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (6B) - Psych & Soc

1. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model's three memory stores?

   Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. Sequential stages where information flows from sensory to permanent storage.

2. What is the primacy effect attributed to in memory research?

   More rehearsal leads to better encoding into long-term memory. Early items get extra rehearsal time before new items arrive.

3. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model sequence of memory stores?

   Sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory. Information flows sequentially through three distinct memory systems.

4. What component of working memory is responsible for attentional control and coordination?

   Central executive. Directs attention and coordinates subsystem activities.

5. What is the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

   Attentional control system coordinating working memory processes. Directs attention and coordinates subsystems.

6. What is working memory in the information-processing model?

   Active, limited-capacity system for holding and manipulating info. Temporarily holds info you're consciously thinking about.

7. What is maintenance rehearsal?

   Rote repetition to keep information active in STM. Simple repetition prevents decay but doesn't create lasting memories.

8. Which brain structure is most critical for forming new explicit (declarative) memories?

   Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe). Consolidates new declarative memories from STM to LTM.

9. Which retrieval principle states that matching internal state or context improves recall?

   Encoding specificity (state-dependent and context-dependent retrieval). Memory best when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions.

10. What is rehearsal, and which type best supports long-term retention?

    Repeated processing; elaborative rehearsal best supports LTM. Meaningful processing creates stronger memory traces.

11. What is the visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley and Hitch working memory model?

    Subsystem that maintains visual and spatial information. Processes visual imagery and spatial relationships.

12. What is the definition of encoding in the context of human memory?

    Converting information into a storable memory representation. First step in memory formation, transforming sensory input into neural codes.

13. What is long-term memory (LTM) in terms of duration and capacity?

    Relatively permanent storage with large capacity. Unlimited duration and capacity unlike working memory.

14. What is iconic memory?

    Brief visual sensory memory lasting about $0.5$ s. Allows perception of complete visual scenes despite brief exposure.

15. What is maintenance rehearsal?

    Rote repetition to keep information in working memory. Prevents decay but doesn't transfer to long-term storage.

16. What is the typical capacity of working memory (digit span)?

    About $7 2$ items (often $4$ chunks in practice). Miller's magic number; modern research shows fewer chunks.

17. What is episodic memory?

    Explicit memory for personally experienced events and context. Remembering your birthday party vs. knowing what birthdays are.

18. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (multi-store) model sequence for information flow in memory?

    Sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory. Sequential stages with attention and rehearsal as gatekeepers.

19. What is chunking, and what does it primarily improve in working memory?

    Grouping items; increases effective capacity. Combines multiple items into meaningful units.

20. What is elaborative rehearsal?

    Linking new information to existing knowledge and meaning. Creates meaningful associations rather than rote repetition.

21. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

    Explicit = conscious; implicit = nonconscious (skills/priming/conditioning). Explicit requires conscious recall; implicit operates automatically.

22. Identify which effect explains better recall for early list items after a delay: primacy or recency.

    Primacy effect. Early items enter long-term memory through rehearsal.

23. Which long-term memory type stores facts and general knowledge?

    Semantic memory. Stores conceptual knowledge without personal context.

24. What is chunking as a strategy for improving working memory performance?

    Grouping items into meaningful units to increase effective capacity. Combines multiple items into single units (e.g., phone numbers).

25. What is procedural memory?

    Implicit memory for skills and habits (how to perform tasks). Procedural memory enables automatic execution of learned actions through repeated practice, stored implicitly without declarative awareness.

26. Identify the effect: a word is recalled better when preceded by a related word.

    Semantic priming. Semantic priming activates related concepts in memory networks, reducing response times and improving recall through spreading activation.

27. What is the difference between storage and retrieval in memory?

    Storage = keeping info; retrieval = accessing stored info. Storage maintains info; retrieval accesses what's stored.

28. What is iconic memory, and which sensory modality does it primarily involve?

    Brief visual sensory memory. Stores visual impressions for ~0.5 seconds after stimulus disappears.

29. What is short-term memory (STM) and its typical duration without rehearsal?

    Temporary store; about $20$–$30$ s without rehearsal. Limited capacity system holding current information briefly.

30. What is priming in the context of implicit memory?

    Prior exposure facilitates later processing of related stimuli. Can be perceptual (visual) or conceptual (semantic).

31. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) in terms of synaptic change?

    Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated activation. Enhanced synaptic transmission underlies learning and memory.

32. What is maintenance rehearsal, and what type of memory does it mainly support?

    Rote repetition; primarily supports short-term/working memory. Simple repetition without meaning; doesn't create lasting memories.

33. What is procedural memory, and which broad memory category does it belong to?

    Skill and habit memory; implicit (nondeclarative) memory. Motor skills operate without conscious awareness.

34. Which brain region is most associated with working memory and executive control?

    Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex coordinates attention and manipulation of information in working memory, supporting executive functions like planning and decision-making.

35. What is retrieval in the context of human memory?

    The process of accessing stored information. Reactivates stored memory traces to bring them to consciousness.

36. What is retrieval in the context of human memory?

    The process of accessing stored information. Reactivates stored memory traces for conscious use.

37. What is the definition of storage in the context of human memory?

    Retention of encoded information over time. Maintains encoded memories in neural networks across time.

38. Which retrieval method is described by: "produce information without options or cues"?

    Recall. Free retrieval requires generating answers from memory alone.

39. What is the visuospatial sketchpad responsible for in working memory?

    Temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information. Processes mental imagery and spatial navigation tasks.

40. What is maintenance rehearsal in memory encoding?

    Rote repetition to keep information active in working memory. Simple repetition without meaning, less effective than elaboration.

41. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

    Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is unconscious influence on behavior. Declarative requires awareness; procedural operates automatically.

42. Which encoding strategy is described by organizing items into meaningful groups?

    Chunking. Overcomes working memory's 7±2 item limit by grouping.

43. What is iconic memory, and about how long does it last?

    Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.5$ s. Stores visual afterimages for split-second processing.

44. What is elaborative rehearsal?

    Linking new information to existing knowledge for LTM encoding. Creates meaningful connections for durable memory formation.

45. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) as a proposed mechanism of learning and memory?

    Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated stimulation. Cellular mechanism where synaptic connections strengthen with use.

46. What is storage in the context of human memory?

    The retention of encoded information over time. Maintains encoded memories in neural networks over time.

47. Which brain structure is most critical for forming new explicit memories?

    Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe). The hippocampus integrates and binds information from various cortical areas, essential for declaring new explicit memories before consolidation.

48. What is the difference between encoding and storage in the context of memory?

    Encoding creates memory traces; storage maintains them over time. Encoding forms initial representations; storage preserves them.

49. What is rehearsal in memory, and which type best supports long-term retention?

    Repetition; elaborative rehearsal best supports long-term retention. Maintenance rehearsal keeps info active; elaborative creates lasting memories.

50. What is chunking in memory, and what does it primarily increase?

    Grouping items into units; increases effective STM capacity. Combines multiple items into meaningful units.

51. Which type of memory store holds information for milliseconds to seconds with high capacity?

    Sensory memory. Brief, high-capacity buffer for raw sensory input.

52. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) as a mechanism of memory?

    Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated activation. Cellular mechanism where synapses become more responsive.

53. What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?

    Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is nonconscious influence on behavior. Explicit requires deliberate recall; implicit works automatically.

54. What is storage in the context of human memory?

    Retention of encoded information over time. Maintains encoded memories in neural networks over time.

55. What working-memory subsystem temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information?

    Visuospatial sketchpad. Processes visual imagery and spatial relationships.

56. Identify the retrieval principle: recall is improved when context at retrieval matches encoding.

    Encoding specificity principle (context-dependent memory). Memory improves when learning and recall environments match.

57. What is the spacing effect (distributed practice) in long-term memory formation?

    Spaced study yields better long-term retention than massed practice. The spacing effect demonstrates that distributing learning sessions over time strengthens memory consolidation through repeated retrieval and reduced interference.

58. Which long-term memory type stores personally experienced events with context?

    Episodic memory. Includes time, place, and emotional context of experiences.

59. What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's working memory model?

    A subsystem that temporarily stores and rehearses verbal/auditory info. Enables subvocal rehearsal and language processing.

60. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model sequence of memory stores?

    Sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory. Information flows through three sequential memory stages.

61. What is the typical duration of short-term memory without rehearsal?

    About $20$ to $30$ seconds. Without active maintenance, short-term memory decays rapidly due to interference and trace degradation, limiting its role to temporary storage.

62. What is the key difference between sensation and perception in memory formation?

    Sensation detects input; perception organizes and interprets it. Sensation is raw input; perception adds meaning and organization.

63. What is chunking in memory, and what does it improve most directly?

    Grouping items into meaningful units; increases effective STM capacity. Overcomes the 7±2 item limit by creating larger units.

64. What is echoic memory?

    Auditory sensory memory lasting about $3$ to $4$ seconds. Sound echoes persist briefly after stimulus ends.

65. What is echoic memory?

    Brief auditory sensory memory lasting about $3$–$4$ s. Enables understanding of continuous speech despite gaps.

66. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (three-stage) model of memory?

    Sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory. Sequential flow through three distinct memory stores.

67. Which brain structure is most critical for forming new explicit (declarative) memories?

    Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe). Damage causes anterograde amnesia, preventing new memory formation.

68. Which explicit memory subtype involves personal events tied to time and place?

    Episodic memory. Autobiographical memories with context.

69. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) in the context of memory?

    Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated activation. Neural basis of learning via enhanced synaptic transmission.

70. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) in the neurobiology of memory?

    Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated activation. Neural basis of learning: synapses strengthen with use.

71. Which type of memory store holds raw sensory input for milliseconds to seconds?

    Sensory memory. Brief buffer that captures all sensory input before rapid decay.

72. What is the levels-of-processing framework for encoding?

    Deeper semantic processing produces better long-term retention. Shallow (structural) vs deep (semantic) processing affects retention.

73. What is the distinction between episodic and semantic memory within explicit memory?

    Episodic is events; semantic is facts and concepts. Personal experiences vs. general knowledge.

74. What is the levels-of-processing principle in memory?

    Deeper, semantic processing yields stronger, longer-lasting memories. Craik & Lockhart showed meaningful processing beats shallow processing.

75. What is chunking in short-term memory?

    Grouping items into meaningful units to increase effective capacity. Overcomes STM limits by combining individual items into larger units.

76. What is the typical duration of iconic (visual sensory) memory?

    About $0.5$ seconds. Visual afterimages fade extremely quickly.

77. What is the key distinction between recall and recognition?

    Recall reproduces info; recognition identifies previously learned info. Recall generates info; recognition matches to memory.

78. What is the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

    Attentional controller that allocates resources and coordinates subsystems. Directs attention and manages cognitive resources.

79. Which type of memory stores near-exact sensory impressions for a very brief time?

    Sensory memory. First stage holds raw sensory data for milliseconds to seconds.

80. What is iconic memory?

    Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.2$ to $0.5$ seconds. Brief visual afterimage allows processing after stimulus disappears.

81. What is chunking in memory, and what does it improve?

    Grouping items into meaningful units; increases effective capacity. Like remembering phone numbers as 3-3-4 instead of 10 digits.

82. What is echoic memory?

    Auditory sensory memory lasting about $3$–$4$ seconds. Stores sound echoes briefly after hearing them.

83. What are the three stages of the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model of memory?

    Sensory memory, short-term (working) memory, long-term memory. Information flows from brief sensory to limited STM to permanent LTM.

84. Identify the retrieval principle: Recall improves when internal/external context matches encoding.

    Encoding specificity (context-dependent memory). Memory is enhanced when retrieval context matches encoding context.

85. What is the capacity and typical duration of short-term (working) memory?

    About $7\pm^2$ items; duration about $20$ to $30$ seconds. Miller's magic number limits immediate recall without rehearsal.

86. What is storage in the context of human memory?

    The retention of encoded information over time. Maintains encoded memories in neural networks over time.

87. What is the typical capacity of short-term memory in Miller's classic estimate?

    About $7 \pm 2$ items. Miller's magic number for immediate memory span.

88. What are the two major subdivisions of explicit (declarative) long-term memory?

    Episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic stores personal experiences; semantic stores facts.

89. What is the spacing effect, and what study strategy does it support for durable learning?

    Distributed practice yields better retention than cramming. Spaced intervals strengthen memory consolidation.

90. What type of encoding focuses on visual features such as shape or color?

    Visual encoding. Processing based on appearance, common in recognizing objects.

91. What is working memory (relative to short-term memory)?

    Active, limited-capacity system for holding and manipulating information. Unlike passive STM, it actively processes information.

92. What is the testing effect in memory?

    Retrieval practice improves later recall more than restudying. Active retrieval strengthens memory pathways more than passive review.

93. Which option best describes the levels-of-processing theory of encoding?

    Deeper semantic processing produces better long-term retention. Meaningful processing creates stronger memory traces than surface features.

94. Which retrieval method is described by: "identify the correct information among options"?

    Recognition. Matching stored information to presented alternatives.

95. What is sensory memory, and what is its typical duration?

    Brief initial store; iconic $1$ s, echoic $3$–$4$ s. First memory stage holding raw sensory input very briefly.

96. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

    Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is unconscious learning (skills/priming). Explicit requires conscious effort; implicit occurs automatically.

97. What is iconic memory?

    Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.5$ seconds. Brief visual afterimage in sensory register.

98. What is retroactive interference?

    New information disrupts retrieval of previously learned information. Recent learning interferes backward with old similar material.

99. What is the difference between retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia?

    Retrograde: loss of past; anterograde: cannot form new memories. Direction of memory loss differs: before vs. after injury.

100. What is the visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Subsystem for temporary storage/manipulation of visual-spatial info. Processes visual and spatial information.

101. What is the visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley's working memory model?

     A subsystem that temporarily stores and manipulates visual/spatial info. Mental workspace for visual imagery and spatial tasks.

102. What is rehearsal, and which memory store does it primarily support?

     Repeated review; maintains information in short-term memory. Repetition prevents decay in STM.

103. What are the two main subtypes of explicit (declarative) memory?

     Episodic memory and semantic memory. Two forms of conscious, declarative memory.

104. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model's three memory stores?

     Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. Sequential flow through three distinct memory systems.

105. Identify the phenomenon: recall improves when the retrieval context matches encoding context.

     Encoding specificity (context-dependent memory). Environmental cues present during learning aid later retrieval.

106. What is the definition of encoding in the context of human memory?

     Conversion of information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural codes for memory storage.

107. What is the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory within explicit memory?

     Episodic is personal events; semantic is facts and concepts. Autobiographical experiences vs. general knowledge.

108. What is the correct order of the Atkinson-Shiffrin (multi-store) memory model stages?

     Sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory. Information flows from brief sensory buffers through STM to LTM.

109. What is the serial position effect, and which two component effects does it include?

     Better recall at list ends; primacy and recency effects. U-shaped recall curve due to different memory processes.

110. What is the best term for improved recall when the retrieval context matches the encoding context?

     Context-dependent memory (encoding specificity). Environmental cues from learning enhance retrieval.

111. What is retrieval in the context of human memory?

     Accessing stored information for conscious use. Reactivates stored memory traces for conscious awareness.

112. What is elaborative rehearsal, and what does it improve?

     Linking to meaning/prior knowledge; improves long-term retention. Creates connections to existing knowledge for deeper encoding.

113. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) memory and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

     Explicit is conscious; implicit is unconscious (skills/priming). Awareness distinguishes declarative from procedural memory.

114. What is encoding in the context of human memory?

     Conversion of information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural codes for memory formation.

115. Identify the term: improved memory retrieval when context at recall matches encoding context.

     Encoding specificity (context-dependent memory). Matching encoding and retrieval contexts enhances recall.

116. What is the approximate capacity of working memory (digit span) in adults?

     About $7 \pm 2$ items. Miller's magic number shows typical short-term memory limits.

117. What is the spacing effect?

     Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed. Studying over time beats cramming for lasting retention.

118. What is the episodic buffer in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Integrates info across modalities and links working memory to LTM. Temporary multimodal storage connecting working and long-term memory.

119. Which working memory component temporarily stores visual and spatial information?

     Visuospatial sketchpad. Processes mental images and spatial relationships.

120. What is the levels of processing framework for long-term memory?

     Deeper semantic processing yields better retention than shallow processing. Meaning-based encoding creates stronger memory traces.

121. What is the definition of retrieval in the context of human memory?

     Accessing stored information to bring it into awareness. Reactivates stored memory traces for conscious use.

122. What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory within explicit memory?

     Episodic = events; semantic = facts and concepts. Episodic has temporal context; semantic lacks time/place info.

123. What is semantic memory?

     Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge. Knowing Paris is in France, not remembering visiting Paris.

124. Which brain structure is most critical for procedural (skill) memory?

     Basal ganglia (with cerebellar contributions). Motor skills and habits rely on these subcortical structures.

125. What does the levels-of-processing framework predict about deep versus shallow encoding?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger long-term memory. The levels-of-processing framework posits that semantic analysis engages more elaborate cognitive operations, leading to more durable memory traces than superficial processing.

126. What primarily explains the primacy effect in the serial position curve?

     Greater rehearsal leads to better transfer into long-term memory. The primacy effect occurs because initial items receive more attentional resources and rehearsals, facilitating their consolidation into long-term memory.

127. What is the definition of retrieval in the context of human memory?

     Accessing stored information for use. Final memory stage where stored information is brought back to consciousness.

128. What is chunking as a memory strategy?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase effective STM capacity. Organizes info into larger units (e.g., letters into words).

129. What is iconic memory?

     Visual sensory memory lasting about $1$ second. Stores visual snapshots from eyes before they fade.

130. What is retrieval cueing, and what does it aim to improve?

     Providing prompts that increase the likelihood of successful retrieval. Retrieval cues activate associated memory traces by providing contextual or semantic hints, enhancing access to stored information during recall.

131. What are the three components of working memory in the Baddeley–Hitch model?

     Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad. Executive controls two slave systems for active processing.

132. Which option best identifies the effect: better recall for first and last list items?

     Serial position effect (primacy and recency effects). U-shaped recall curve due to rehearsal and STM recency.

133. What is working memory, and which system is commonly used to describe its components?

     Active short-term processing; Baddeley and Hitch model. Manipulates information actively, not just passive storage.

134. What is chunking in short-term memory?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase capacity. Combines multiple items into single memory units.

135. What is the serial position effect?

     Better recall for early (primacy) and late (recency) list items. The serial position effect arises from differential memory strengths, with early items benefiting from long-term storage and late items from short-term accessibility.

136. What is iconic memory (visual sensory memory), and what is its typical duration?

     Visual sensory store lasting about $0.5$ seconds. Brief visual persistence allows processing after stimulus ends.

137. What is sensory memory, and what is its main function?

     Very brief storage of sensory input for initial processing. Lasts <1 second; allows perception before info decays or transfers.

138. What is proactive interference?

     Old information disrupts retrieval of newly learned information. Prior learning interferes forward with new similar material.

139. What is the phonological loop responsible for in working memory?

     Temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal and auditory information. Includes phonological store and articulatory rehearsal process.

140. What is the capacity and typical duration of echoic (auditory sensory) memory?

     Large capacity; duration about $2$ to $4$ seconds. Auditory echoes last longer than visual traces.

141. What is the spacing effect in learning and memory?

     Spaced practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice. Distributed learning beats cramming.

142. What is the difference between recognition and recall?

     Recognition identifies learned info; recall generates it without cues. Recognition uses cues; recall requires self-generation.

143. What is iconic memory, and which sensory modality does it store?

     Visual sensory memory store. Lasts ~0.5 seconds; named for visual 'icons' or images.

144. What is the Atkinson–Shiffrin (modal) model's three memory stores?

     Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. Information flows sequentially through these three stages.

145. What is the recency effect attributed to in memory research?

     Last items remain in working memory at time of recall. Recent items haven't been displaced from active memory yet.

146. What is echoic memory, and about how long does it last?

     Auditory sensory memory lasting about $3$–$4$ s. Allows hearing recent sounds after they've stopped.

147. Identify the retrieval strategy: using a related memory to access the target memory.

     Cue-dependent retrieval. Environmental or mental cues trigger associated memories.

148. Which explicit memory subtype involves facts and general knowledge not tied to context?

     Semantic memory. Knowledge independent of personal experience.

149. What is echoic memory, and which sensory modality does it store?

     Auditory sensory memory store. Lasts ~3-4 seconds; named for auditory 'echoes' of sounds.

150. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit memory?

     Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is nonconscious influence. Explicit requires conscious effort; implicit operates automatically.

151. What is procedural memory, and which broad system does it belong to?

     Memory for skills and habits; an implicit memory type. Stored in basal ganglia and cerebellum; resistant to amnesia.

152. What is the typical capacity of short-term (working) memory for discrete items?

     About $7 2$ items (Miller's law). Miller's law establishes that short-term memory can hold a limited number of discrete items, reflecting cognitive constraints on immediate information processing.

153. What is the levels-of-processing framework's main claim about long-term memory?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger long-term memories. Processing meaning (vs. surface features) creates durable memories.

154. What is the key distinction between explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

     Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is unconscious influence on behavior. Aware vs. unaware memory retrieval.

155. What is the approximate capacity of STM/WM in items?

     About $7 \pm 2$ items (classical estimate). Miller's magic number reflects cognitive processing limits.

156. What is the key distinction between recall and recognition in memory retrieval?

     Recall = generate; recognition = identify previously learned info. Recall requires producing info; recognition only requires identifying it.

157. What is the key difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit memory?

     Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is nonconscious performance change. Explicit memory requires intentional effort and awareness for retrieval, whereas implicit memory influences behavior automatically without conscious recollection.

158. Identify which effect is reduced when a distractor task prevents rehearsal after a list: primacy or recency.

     Recency effect. Last items remain in short-term memory unless disrupted.

159. Identify the correct pairing: hippocampus with forming new declarative memories or with balance/coordination.

     Hippocampus with forming new declarative memories. Critical for converting experiences into long-term memories.

160. What is the serial position effect?

     Better recall for early (primacy) and late (recency) list items. U-shaped curve shows advantage for first and last items.

161. What type of encoding focuses on sound patterns (for example, rhymes)?

     Acoustic encoding. Processing based on how words sound, often used in poetry.

162. What is sensory memory, and what is its key functional role in information processing?

     Brief, modality-specific buffer that holds raw sensory input. Holds unprocessed sensory data for milliseconds to seconds.

163. In Baddeley's model, which component allocates attention and coordinates subsystems?

     Central executive. Directs resources and manages cognitive load across tasks.

164. What is the spacing effect in memory encoding?

     Distributed practice produces better long-term retention than cramming. Spaced repetition strengthens memory consolidation.

165. What is iconic memory?

     Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.2$ to $0.5$ seconds. Allows persistence of vision for smooth perception.

166. What is the capacity and typical duration of iconic (visual sensory) memory?

     Large capacity; duration about $0.2$ to $0.5$ seconds. Visual afterimages persist briefly despite large capacity.

167. What does the levels-of-processing framework predict about deeper processing?

     Deeper semantic processing produces better long-term retention. Meaningful processing creates stronger memory traces than surface features.

168. What is maintenance rehearsal, and what type of memory does it mainly support?

     Rote repetition; mainly supports short-term retention. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory, preventing decay but not facilitating deeper encoding.

169. What working-memory component integrates information across modalities and links to long-term memory?

     Episodic buffer. Binds diverse information into coherent episodes.

170. Which option best describes procedural memory: explicit conscious recall or implicit skill learning?

     Implicit skill learning. Motor skills and habits learned without conscious awareness.

171. What is levels-of-processing theory in memory encoding?

     Deeper semantic processing produces better long-term retention. Meaningful processing beats shallow processing.

172. Which brain structure is most associated with procedural (skill) memory?

     Basal ganglia (especially striatum). Motor skills remain intact even with hippocampal damage.

173. What is the encoding specificity principle?

     Retrieval improves when context at recall matches context at encoding. The encoding specificity principle emphasizes that effective cues overlap with the original learning context, facilitating matched retrieval pathways.

174. What is the definition of retrieval in the context of human memory?

     Accessing stored information for use. Reactivates stored memory traces for conscious use.

175. What is the levels-of-processing theory claim about what best predicts long-term retention?

     Deeper, semantic processing produces better retention. Meaning-based processing creates stronger memory traces.

176. What is the episodic buffer in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Integrates information across modalities and links to long-term memory. Temporary store combining different types of information.

177. Which brain structure is most associated with fear conditioning and emotional memory salience?

     Amygdala. Enhances memory for emotionally significant events.

178. What is chunking as a working-memory strategy?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase recall. Combines elements to form larger units within capacity limits.

179. What is the typical capacity of working memory (short-term memory) in items?

     About $7 2$ items (Miller's estimate). Limited capacity constrains simultaneous processing of information.

180. What is the self-reference effect in memory encoding?

     Information related to the self is encoded and recalled better. The self-reference effect leverages personal relevance to deepen encoding, as self-related information activates richer associative networks in memory.

181. What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Subsystem for temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal/auditory info. Holds speech-based information through subvocal rehearsal.

182. What is the levels-of-processing principle for long-term memory encoding?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger long-term retention. Processing meaning creates more retrieval cues.

183. What is the working memory model component that temporarily stores visual/spatial info?

     Visuospatial sketchpad. Mental workspace for visual imagery and spatial tasks.

184. What is elaborative rehearsal (as opposed to maintenance rehearsal)?

     Linking new info to meaning and prior knowledge to promote LTM. Creates associations vs. simple repetition.

185. Which retrieval principle states recall improves when internal or external context matches encoding?

     Encoding specificity (state- and context-dependent memory). Memory improves when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions.

186. What is working memory in the information-processing model of memory?

     Active, limited-capacity system for holding and manipulating info. Evolved from short-term memory concept; emphasizes manipulation not just storage.

187. What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

     Maintenance repeats; elaborative adds meaning/associations to encode deeply. Maintenance just repeats; elaborative creates connections.

188. What is procedural memory, and is it explicit or implicit?

     Skills and habits; an implicit memory system. Motor and cognitive skills learned through practice.

189. Identify the retrieval phenomenon: a word is recalled better after seeing a related word earlier.

     Priming. Prior exposure facilitates processing without conscious awareness.

190. Which retrieval phenomenon is shown when a context cue improves recall in the same environment?

     Context-dependent memory. Environmental cues trigger memories encoded in that setting.

191. What are the two major subtypes of explicit (declarative) memory?

     Episodic memory and semantic memory. Explicit memory divides into episodic for personal experiences and semantic for general knowledge, both relying on conscious retrieval mechanisms.

192. What is echoic memory?

     Auditory sensory memory lasting about $2$ to $4$ seconds. Longer than iconic memory, allows sound pattern recognition.

193. What is chunking in memory, and what does it primarily improve?

     Grouping items into units; increases effective working-memory capacity. Chunking organizes information into meaningful groups, reducing the cognitive load and expanding the functional capacity of working memory beyond basic limits.

194. Identify the retrieval phenomenon: better recall occurs when internal state matches encoding state.

     State-dependent memory. Matching physiological/emotional context enhances retrieval.

195. Which memory system best explains the primacy effect in list recall?

     Long-term memory (more rehearsal/encoding of early items). Early items get more rehearsal time for transfer to LTM.

196. Identify the memory type: remembering your first day of school as a personal event.

     Episodic (explicit) memory. Personal experiences with time/place context are episodic memories.

197. What is procedural memory?

     Implicit memory for skills and habits (how to do things). Riding a bike uses this automatic, non-conscious memory.

198. What is state-dependent memory?

     Recall improves when internal state at retrieval matches encoding state. State-dependent memory relies on congruence between physiological or emotional states during encoding and retrieval, optimizing cue effectiveness.

199. Which brain structure is most critical for forming new explicit long-term memories?

     Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe). Damage causes anterograde amnesia, preventing new explicit memories.

200. What is the episodic buffer in Baddeley's model of working memory?

     Integrates info across modalities and links working and long-term memory. Added in 2000 to explain binding of diverse information.

201. What is working memory, and how does it differ from short-term memory?

     Active manipulation of information, not just brief storage. WM processes information; STM only holds it passively.

202. What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Subsystem for temporary storage/rehearsal of verbal sounds. Processes speech-based info through rehearsal.

203. What is the difference between recall and recognition as memory retrieval processes?

     Recall retrieves without cues; recognition identifies with cues. Recall generates from memory; recognition matches to stimuli.

204. Identify the memory system most associated with the recency effect during free recall.

     Working (short-term) memory (recent items still active). Last items remain in immediate memory buffer.

205. What is the serial position effect, and what two components does it include?

     Better recall for ends of list; primacy and recency effects. U-shaped recall curve shows position-dependent memory.

206. What is the difference between encoding and storage in memory?

     Encoding = input; storage = retaining information over time. Encoding transforms input into memory; storage maintains it.

207. What is the definition of storage in the context of memory?

     Maintaining encoded information over time. Keeps encoded memories available for later access.

208. What is the typical duration of echoic (auditory sensory) memory?

     About $3$ to $4$ seconds. Auditory echoes persist longer than visual traces.

209. What are the two major subdivisions of implicit (nondeclarative) long-term memory?

     Procedural memory and conditioning/priming effects. Skills/habits and unconscious associations from past experiences.

210. What is encoding in the context of human memory?

     The process of converting information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural representations for storage.

211. What is the key distinction between short-term memory and working memory?

     Working memory actively manipulates information; STM is passive storage. Working memory includes executive control functions.

212. What is working memory in the multistore model of memory?

     Limited-capacity, active processing system for short-term use. Holds and manipulates information temporarily, unlike passive storage.

213. What is sensory memory (definition and typical duration)?

     Brief storage of sensory input; lasts milliseconds to seconds. First memory stage; holds raw sensory data very briefly.

214. What is the working memory model component that temporarily stores verbal/auditory info?

     Phonological loop. Rehearses speech-based material via inner voice.

215. What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

     Maintenance repeats; elaborative links to meaning for long-term storage. Simple repetition vs. meaningful connections.

216. What is the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Attentional control system that allocates working memory resources. Directs attention and coordinates other WM components.

217. What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley and Hitch working memory?

     Allocates attention and coordinates working memory subsystems. Acts as attentional controller; doesn't store info itself.

218. What is echoic memory, and which sensory modality does it primarily store?

     Auditory sensory memory lasting about $2$ to $4$ s. Longer duration than iconic memory enables speech comprehension.

219. What is working memory (relative to short-term memory)?

     Short-term storage plus active manipulation of information. Extends STM concept to include processing, not just storage.

220. What is the central executive in Baddeley and Hitch working memory model?

     Attentional control system that allocates working memory resources. Coordinates and directs information processing.

221. What is elaborative rehearsal, and what is its main effect on memory?

     Linking new info to meaning; improves long-term encoding. Elaborative rehearsal connects new information to existing knowledge, enhancing semantic processing and strengthening neural pathways for long-term retention.

222. What is the spacing effect in memory?

     Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice. Spaced intervals allow consolidation between learning sessions.

223. Which explicit memory subtype stores personal events with context (time/place)?

     Episodic memory. Autobiographical memories tied to specific times and places.

224. What is the definition of encoding in the context of human memory?

     Conversion of information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural codes for memory formation.

225. What is working memory (WM) as distinct from simple STM?

     Active maintenance and manipulation of information. Goes beyond storage to include processing and updating.

226. What is the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Attentional controller that allocates working memory resources. Coordinates subsystems and directs attention.

227. What primarily explains the recency effect in the serial position curve?

     Recent items remain in working memory at time of recall. The recency effect results from the persistence of final items in short-term memory, making them readily available during immediate recall tasks.

228. What is the episodic buffer in the updated working memory model?

     Integrates information across modalities into a coherent episode. Binds multimodal information into unified experiences.

229. What is elaborative rehearsal (as opposed to maintenance rehearsal)?

     Linking new info to meaning and prior knowledge. Creates deeper processing through meaningful connections.

230. What is long-term potentiation (LTP) in the context of memory storage?

     Persistent strengthening of synapses after repeated activation. Long-term potentiation enhances synaptic efficiency through repeated stimulation, forming the neural basis for associative learning and memory storage.

231. In Baddeley's model, which component handles temporary sound-based information?

     Phonological loop. Stores verbal/acoustic info via subvocal rehearsal.

232. What is echoic memory, and which sensory modality does it primarily involve?

     Brief auditory sensory memory. Stores auditory impressions for ~3-4 seconds after sound ends.

233. What is the definition of retrieval in the context of memory?

     Accessing stored information for use. Brings stored memories back to conscious awareness.

234. What is echoic memory?

     Auditory sensory memory lasting about $2$ to $4$ seconds. Enables speech comprehension by holding sounds briefly.

235. What is encoding in the context of human memory?

     The process of converting information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural representations for storage.

236. What is consolidation in memory, and when does it primarily occur?

     Stabilization of memories after learning; occurs over time and sleep. Consolidation transforms fragile short-term traces into stable long-term memories via synaptic changes, with sleep facilitating offline reactivation and integration.

237. What type of encoding focuses on meaning and tends to produce the best long-term recall?

     Semantic (deep) encoding. Processing meaning creates stronger memory traces than surface features.

238. Which working memory component temporarily stores auditory or verbal information?

     Phonological loop. Rehearses speech-based information through subvocal repetition.

239. What is echoic memory?

     Auditory sensory memory lasting about $3$ to $4$ seconds. Echoic memory retains auditory information slightly longer than visual, enabling comprehension of speech by holding sounds for phonetic processing.

240. What is the most commonly tested capacity range for short-term memory (STM)?

     About $7 \pm 2$ items. Miller's magic number describes typical STM capacity limits.

241. What is elaborative rehearsal?

     Linking new information to existing knowledge to promote LTM encoding. Creates meaningful connections for durable memory formation.

242. Identify the memory system most associated with the primacy effect during free recall.

     Long-term memory (more rehearsal of early items). Early items transfer to LTM through rehearsal.

243. What is the capacity of short-term memory in Miller's classic estimate?

     About $7 \pm 2$ items. Classic finding shows STM's limited capacity without chunking.

244. What is the typical capacity and duration of short-term memory (STM)?

     About $7 2$ items for about $20$ to $30$ seconds. Miller's magic number defines limited capacity without rehearsal.

245. What is the self-reference effect in memory?

     Information related to the self is remembered better. Personal relevance enhances encoding.

246. Which brain structure is most critical for forming new explicit (declarative) memories?

     Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe). Damage causes anterograde amnesia for facts and events.

247. What is chunking as a strategy for improving short-term memory performance?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase effective capacity. Overcomes STM's $7±2$ item limit by creating larger units.

248. Which working memory component allocates attention and coordinates the subsystems?

     Central executive. Directs attention and integrates information from subsystems.

249. What is iconic memory?

     Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.2$ to $0.5$ seconds. Iconic memory preserves visual stimuli momentarily, allowing the brain to process persistent afterimages for further encoding if attended to.

250. What is chunking as a memory strategy?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase effective STM capacity. Overcomes STM limits by organizing info into larger units.

251. What is the definition of storage in the context of human memory?

     Maintaining encoded information over time. Keeps encoded memories intact between initial learning and later use.

252. In Baddeley's model, which component handles temporary visual-spatial information?

     Visuospatial sketchpad. Mental workspace for visual imagery and spatial tasks.

253. What is the definition of encoding in the context of memory?

     Converting information into a storable memory trace. Transforms sensory input into neural codes for storage.

254. Which explicit memory subtype stores facts and general knowledge without context?

     Semantic memory. Abstract knowledge independent of personal experience.

255. What is sensory memory, and what is its core function?

     Very brief storage of sensory input for initial processing. Holds raw sensory data before attention selects relevant info.

256. Which option best describes the spacing effect in long-term memory formation?

     Distributed practice improves retention more than massed practice. Spaced intervals strengthen memory consolidation.

257. What is the visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Subsystem for temporary storage/manipulation of visual and spatial info. Mental workspace for visual imagery and spatial navigation.

258. What is elaborative rehearsal (as opposed to maintenance rehearsal)?

     Linking new information to meaning and prior knowledge. Creates associations and connections, unlike simple repetition.

259. What working-memory subsystem temporarily stores and rehearses speech-based information?

     Phonological loop. Maintains verbal information through subvocal rehearsal.

260. What is the phonological loop in Baddeley and Hitch working memory model?

     Subsystem that maintains verbal and auditory information. Processes speech sounds and verbal rehearsal.

261. What is the levels-of-processing principle?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger long-term memory than shallow processing. Meaning-based processing creates more durable memory traces.

262. What is the levels-of-processing theory claim about durable memory formation?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger long-term memory. Meaningful analysis creates more durable memory traces.

263. What is chunking as a memory strategy?

     Grouping items into meaningful units to increase STM efficiency. Combines elements to overcome STM capacity limits.

264. What is echoic memory (auditory sensory memory), and what is its typical duration?

     Auditory sensory store lasting about $3$ to $4$ seconds. Longer than iconic memory, enables speech comprehension.

265. What is working memory, and how does it differ from short-term memory?

     Active manipulation of info; STM emphasizes brief storage. Working memory processes info; STM just holds it.

266. What is iconic memory, and which sensory modality does it primarily store?

     Visual sensory memory lasting about $0.2$ to $0.5$ s. Brief visual afterimage allows processing after stimulus disappears.

267. Identify the effect: A delay before recall eliminates recall of the last list items.

     Recency effect is reduced because short-term memory contents decay. Delay allows STM traces to fade, eliminating recency advantage.

268. Which long-term memory type is most directly involved in learning motor skills?

     Procedural memory. Stores how-to knowledge for automatic skill execution.

269. Identify the difference between recall and recognition in memory retrieval.

     Recall: generate info; recognition: identify previously learned info. Recall requires production; recognition only requires familiarity.

270. What is the defining feature of sensory memory in the Atkinson–Shiffrin model?

     Brief, modality-specific storage of incoming sensory information. In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, sensory memory acts as the initial buffer holding raw sensory data briefly before selective attention transfers it to short-term memory.

271. What is the definition of storage in the context of human memory?

     Retention of encoded information over time. Maintains encoded memories in neural networks over time.

272. Which memory system best explains the recency effect in list recall?

     Short-term/working memory (recent items still active). Last items remain in STM at time of recall.

273. What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

     Explicit = conscious recall; implicit = unconscious influence/skills. Explicit requires effort to recall; implicit works automatically.

274. What is the primary encoding process that transfers information from short-term to long-term memory?

     Elaborative rehearsal. Creates meaningful connections for durable encoding.

275. What is long-term memory (LTM) in terms of capacity and duration?

     Essentially unlimited capacity and duration. Permanent storage system with no known limits.

276. What is the episodic buffer in Baddeley's working memory model?

     Integrates information across domains and links to LTM. Temporary multimodal store connecting working and long-term memory.

277. In Baddeley's model, which component integrates information into unified episodes?

     Episodic buffer. Binds multimodal info from different sources into coherent memories.

278. What is levels-of-processing theory of memory?

     Deeper semantic processing produces stronger, more durable memories. Processing meaning creates stronger memories than surface features.

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