Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan (6B) - Psych & Soc

What is theory of mind in child development?

Understanding that others have different mental states. Develops around age 4, crucial for social interaction.
Which concept best explains why children learn cultural norms through guided participation with adults?

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Emphasizes social interaction and cultural context in learning.
What is the key feature of Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)?

Learning via senses and motor actions. Infants explore the world through touching, grasping, and mouthing objects.
What is separation anxiety in early development?

Distress when separated from primary caregivers. Peaks around 10-18 months as attachment forms.
What is the defining feature of Alzheimer disease relevant to cognition across the lifespan?

Progressive neurodegeneration with memory loss. Most common dementia; plaques and tangles damage brain tissue.
What is equilibration in Piagetian theory?

Balancing assimilation and accommodation to reduce cognitive disequilibrium. This mechanism drives cognitive progress by resolving tensions between existing knowledge and new information through adaptive processes.
What is the key limitation of preoperational thought regarding viewpoints?

Egocentrism. Inability to see situations from others' perspectives, typical ages 2-7.
What is the primary cognitive achievement in Erikson's industry vs inferiority stage?

Developing competence through mastering skills and meeting expectations. School-age focus on achievement builds self-efficacy.
What is the key finding of the A-not-B error in infancy?

Infants persist in searching at old location, reflecting immature cognition. Shows limited working memory and executive function in infants.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas. Fitting new information into existing mental frameworks.
What is the key claim of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development?

Cognition develops through social interaction and cultural tools. Emphasizes culture and social learning over individual discovery.
What is object permanence in the sensorimotor stage?

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight. This milestone indicates the infant's emerging understanding of the permanence and independence of the physical world beyond immediate perception.
Which Piaget stage is characterized by abstract and hypothetical reasoning (age range)?

Formal operational stage, about 12 years and older. Final stage where systematic, scientific thinking emerges.
What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage age range and core achievement?

Birth–2 years; object permanence. First stage where infants learn through senses and motor actions.
What is the core conflict in Erikson's identity vs role confusion stage?

Forming a stable identity versus confusion about roles and self. Adolescent crisis requiring exploration to establish coherent self.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Young children assume others see the world as they do.
What is conservation in Piaget's theory?

Quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. Understanding develops in concrete operational stage around age 7.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as skill grows. Like training wheels, helps learners master tasks beyond current ability.
Which pattern best describes intelligence across adulthood: fluid vs crystallized?

Fluid tends to decline; crystallized tends to increase or remain stable. Experience compensates for age-related processing declines.
Which type of memory is most associated with hippocampal development in childhood?

Explicit (declarative) memory for facts and events. Hippocampus crucial for forming conscious memories of experiences.
What is accommodation in Piagetian theory?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Like reshaping the hole to fit a new peg - mental structures change to fit new info.
What is conservation in Piagetian cognitive development?

Quantity remains constant despite changes in form. Understanding that water poured into different containers stays same amount.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory?

Temporary support that is gradually removed as skill increases. Like training wheels - helps learners until they're ready to go solo.
What does a theory of mind refer to in child cognitive development?

Understanding that others have different mental states. Develops around age 4-5, crucial for social interaction.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature and ignoring others. Leads to errors in conservation tasks like water in different glasses.
Identify the concept: a child can mentally reverse steps to return to an initial state.

Reversibility. This cognitive ability emerges in the concrete operational stage, enabling logical manipulation of transformations in problem-solving.
What is meant by cognition in developmental psychology?

Mental processes of knowing: perception, memory, reasoning, and language. This encompasses the foundational mental activities that evolve through developmental stages, forming the basis for understanding cognitive growth.
What is theory of mind, and around what age does it typically emerge?

Understanding others have distinct beliefs; about age $4$ . Enables false-belief tasks and perspective-taking.
Identify the memory system most associated with age-related decline: episodic or procedural?

Episodic memory. Personal event memories decline more than skill-based memories.
What is the central idea of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Children construct knowledge via schemas that change with experience. Active learning through mental frameworks that adapt to new experiences.
Identify the Piaget stage: an adolescent evaluates abstract propositions and hypotheses.

Formal operational stage. Age 11+; systematic reasoning about abstract concepts.
What is the concrete operational stage age range in Piaget's theory?

About 7 to 11 years. Third stage where logical thinking applies to concrete objects.
What does the term "executive function" refer to in cognitive development?

Control processes: inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. These frontal lobe functions develop through childhood into early 20s.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Interpreting new info using existing schemas. Fitting new experiences into pre-existing mental structures.
Identify the Piaget stage: a child uses symbolic play but fails conservation tasks.

Preoperational stage. Ages 2-7; symbolic thinking emerges but logic is limited.
Which parenting style is high warmth and low control, often linked to impulsive behavior?

Permissive parenting. "Friend" parents who avoid setting limits or enforcing rules.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature while ignoring others. Leads to errors like judging tall glasses hold more than wide ones.
What is Piaget's formal operational stage (age range and hallmark ability)?

11+ years; abstract and hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Enables scientific thinking and systematic hypothesis testing.
What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage, and what is its approximate age range?

Sensorimotor: cognition via senses and actions; birth to ~2 years. First stage where infants learn through sensory exploration and motor activity.
What is animism in the preoperational stage?

Attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects. Children believe sun "goes to sleep" or toys have feelings.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Like creating a new "bird" schema when seeing animals that fly.
What is the major limitation in Piaget's preoperational stage involving others' viewpoints?

Egocentrism. Inability to see situations from others' perspectives.
What is conservation in Piagetian theory?

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in form. It reflects the child's grasp of invariance, recognizing that superficial changes do not alter underlying quantities or properties.
What is the information-processing model's view of cognitive development?

Development reflects increases in processing speed, capacity, and strategies. Like computer upgrades: faster processor, more RAM, better algorithms.
What is fluid intelligence, and how does it typically change across adulthood?

Novel problem-solving; tends to decline with age. Peaks in early 20s; involves processing speed and pattern recognition.
Which term describes a child's level of performance when aided by a more skilled partner?

Zone of proximal development (ZPD). Gap between independent ability and potential with guidance (Vygotsky).
What is conservation, and which Piaget stage reliably demonstrates it?

Quantity remains constant despite form; concrete operational. Understanding develops when children can decenter and reverse operations.
What is the defining feature of secure attachment in Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

Distressed at separation, soothed on reunion, returns to play. Child uses caregiver as secure base for exploration.
What is centration in the preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature while ignoring others. Leads to conservation errors - child thinks tall glass has more water.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one feature while ignoring others. Preoperational children can't consider multiple aspects simultaneously.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Children assume others see the world as they do.
What is reversibility in Piaget's concrete operational stage?

Understanding actions can be undone mentally. Enables understanding that $3+4=7$ means $7-4=3$ .
What is object permanence in Piaget's theory?

Knowing objects exist when not perceived. Major milestone around 8 months; peek-a-boo works because of this development.
What is Piaget's formal operational stage, and what is its approximate age range?

Formal operational: abstract and hypothetical reasoning; ~12+ years. Final stage enabling scientific reasoning and abstract thought.
What is Piaget's concrete operational stage (age range and hallmark abilities)?

7–11 years; conservation and logical operations on concrete objects. Children can think logically but need physical objects to manipulate.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?

Tasks possible with guidance but not yet independently. The gap between current ability and potential with help.
What is conservation, and which Piaget stage reliably demonstrates it?

Quantity remains despite form change; concrete operational stage. Children understand same water in different shaped containers.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as skill increases. Teacher adjusts help based on learner's current ability level.
Identify the Piaget term for changing a schema to fit new information.

Accommodation. Modifying mental frameworks when new info doesn't fit existing schemas.
What ability defines Piaget's preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years)?

Symbolic thought with limited logic. Children can use language and pretend play but lack logical operations.
Which Piaget stage includes abstract reasoning and hypothesis testing (about 12+ years)?

Formal operational stage. Enables scientific thinking and hypothetical reasoning.
What is accommodation in Piaget's learning processes?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Changing mental structures when new information doesn't fit.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Children assume others see/think/feel exactly as they do.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one aspect of a situation and ignoring others. Preoperational children can't consider multiple dimensions simultaneously.
What is centration in the preoperational stage?

Focusing on one feature and ignoring others. Preoperational limitation preventing understanding of conservation.
What is the hallmark of Piaget's formal operational stage (about 12 years and older)?

Abstract and hypothetical reasoning. Enables scientific thinking and considering multiple variables.
What is the preoperational stage age range in Piaget's theory?

About 2 to 7 years. Second stage marked by symbolic thinking but illogical reasoning.
What is the sensorimotor stage age range in Piaget's theory?

Birth to about 2 years. First stage where infants learn through senses and motor actions.
Which concept is shown when a toddler insists a tall thin glass has "more" than a short wide one?

Centration (leading to failure of conservation). Child focuses only on height, ignoring width compensation.
What is fluid intelligence across the lifespan compared with crystallized intelligence?

Fluid declines; crystallized tends to increase. Processing speed decreases with age while accumulated knowledge grows.
Which term best describes a child who cannot describe what another person can see from a new viewpoint?

Egocentrism. Cannot mentally rotate perspectives to see others' views.
What is conservation in Piagetian theory?

Quantity remains the same despite changes in form. Key concept mastered in concrete operational stage.
Which Piaget stage best fits a child who can reverse steps mentally (reversibility)?

Concrete operational stage. This stage (ages 7-11) features logical thinking about concrete objects.
What is object permanence, and in which Piaget stage does it emerge?

Knowing objects exist when unseen; sensorimotor stage. Develops around 8-12 months when infants understand permanence.
Identify the term: a child's balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Equilibration. Cognitive balance drives development through schema adjustment.
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Assimilation fits to schema; accommodation changes schema. New info either fits existing mental structures or requires modifying them.
What is accommodation in Piagetian theory?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Changing mental frameworks when new information doesn't fit.
What is conservation in Piaget's theory?

Quantity stays constant despite shape changes. Key milestone showing logical thinking about physical properties.
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Assimilation: fit info to schema; accommodation: change schema to fit info. Two ways we adapt schemas to new experiences.
What is the typical developmental pattern of processing speed across the lifespan?

Increases through childhood, peaks in early adulthood, then declines. Reflects neural myelination then age-related white matter changes.
What is assimilation in Piagetian theory?

Integrating new information into existing schemas. Like fitting a square peg in a square hole - new info fits existing mental structures.
Which parenting style is low warmth and high control, often linked to anxious or withdrawn children?

Authoritarian parenting. Strict rules without warmth; "because I said so" approach.
What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Tasks possible with guidance but not yet independently. Gap between current ability and potential with expert help.
What is the key new ability in the formal operational stage?

Abstract, hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Enables scientific thinking and systematic hypothesis testing.
What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage (age range and core achievement)?

Birth–2 years; object permanence develops. First stage where infants learn through senses and motor actions.
What is egocentrism in the preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Young children assume everyone sees what they see.
Identify the correct Erikson stage for adolescence: identity vs role confusion describes which task?

Developing a stable identity and sense of self. Adolescents explore values and beliefs for coherent self.
Which Piaget stage includes abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning (about 12 years and older)?

Formal operational stage. Teenagers develop scientific reasoning and can think about possibilities.
What is the defining limitation of the preoperational stage?

Lack of operations: intuitive thinking with poor logical manipulation. Children can't mentally manipulate or reverse actions on objects.
What is the typical pattern of crystallized intelligence across the lifespan?

Increases through adulthood; relatively stable. Accumulated knowledge and vocabulary remain intact or grow.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Modifying schemas to fit new information. Creating new category for "cats" when child learns not all animals are dogs.
What is the key cognitive ability of the formal operational stage?

Abstract reasoning and hypothetical-deductive thinking. Emerges around age 12, enabling scientific and philosophical thinking.
Which Piaget stage is marked by hypothetical-deductive reasoning and abstract thought?

Formal operational stage. Begins around age 11-12 with ability to think systematically about possibilities.
Which option best matches Vygotsky's view of cognitive development?

Cognition develops through social interaction and cultural tools. Vygotsky emphasized social context over individual construction.
What is Piaget's preoperational stage, and what is its approximate age range?

Preoperational: symbolic thought without operations; ~2 to 7 years. Children use symbols (words, images) but lack logical reasoning.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Incorporating new information into an existing schema. Fitting new experiences into existing mental frameworks.
What is the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

Fluid: novel problem solving; crystallized: learned knowledge. Fluid peaks in 20s; crystallized grows with experience.
How do fluid and crystallized intelligence typically change across adulthood?

Fluid tends to decline; crystallized tends to increase. Processing speed decreases but knowledge accumulates with age.
What is the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory (age range and key focus)?

Birth–2 years; cognition develops through sensory and motor interaction. First stage where infants learn through senses and motor actions.
What is assimilation in Piagetian cognitive development?

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. This process enables cognitive continuity by integrating novel experiences into pre-existing mental structures without alteration.
Which Piaget stage involves abstract reasoning and hypothetical-deductive thinking?

Formal operational stage. Begins around age 12, enables systematic and theoretical thinking.
Which parenting style is high warmth and high control (high demandingness)?

Authoritative. Combines responsiveness with clear expectations and rules.
What is the formal operational stage age range in Piaget's theory?

About 12 years and older. Final stage enabling abstract thinking and scientific reasoning.
What is theory of mind in cognitive development?

Understanding others have different beliefs and desires. Develops around age 4-5; crucial for social interaction.
What is the defining feature of Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)?

Cognition develops through sensory input and motor actions. Infants learn by exploring through senses and movement.
What is conservation in Piaget's theory?

Quantity remains the same despite changes in form. Key concept mastered in concrete operational stage.
Across adulthood, which typically declines earlier: fluid or crystallized intelligence?

Fluid intelligence declines earlier. Processing speed peaks in 20s while knowledge continues growing.
What is the typical pattern of crystallized intelligence across the lifespan?

Increases through adulthood; relatively preserved longer. Accumulated knowledge and skills remain stable or grow with age.
What is object permanence, and which Piaget stage first shows it reliably?

Knowing objects exist when unseen; sensorimotor stage. Major milestone around 8-12 months when infants understand permanence.
In Erikson's theory, what is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence?

Identity vs. role confusion. Teens explore who they are and their place in society.
What is the key ability gained in Piaget's concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years)?

Logical operations on concrete objects. Can classify, order, and understand conservation with tangible items.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new info. Changing mental frameworks when new info doesn't fit.
In Erikson's theory, what is the primary psychosocial task of middle adulthood?

Generativity vs. stagnation. Contributing to society and helping next generation versus self-absorption.
What is object permanence in Piaget's theory?

Understanding that objects continue to exist when not perceived. Key milestone showing mental representation develops around 8-12 months.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Modifying schemas to fit new information. Changing mental structures when new info doesn't fit.
Identify the parenting style: high warmth and high control.

Authoritative parenting. Balances responsiveness with reasonable expectations and limits.
What is reversibility in Piagetian theory, and which stage supports it?

Mentally undoing operations; concrete operational stage. Child can think "if I pour it back, it's the same amount."
What is the typical pattern of change in crystallized intelligence across adulthood?

Crystallized intelligence tends to remain stable or increase. Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which form this type of intelligence, benefit from lifelong experience and remain robust.
What is fluid intelligence, and how does it typically change across adulthood?

Novel problem-solving; tends to decline with age. Peaks in young adulthood; involves processing speed and reasoning.
What is scaffolding in the context of the ZPD?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as skill increases. Like training wheels - support removed as competence grows.
Which ability is first clearly demonstrated by passing false-belief tasks?

Theory of mind. False-belief tasks assess the understanding that others may hold incorrect beliefs, a hallmark of advanced social cognition.
Identify the concept: older adults recall fewer items because attentional resources are reduced.

Cognitive resource limitation (reduced processing capacity). Age-related decline in working memory and attention affects performance.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory of adaptation?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Creating new schemas or changing old ones when faced with new experiences.
What is conservation, and which Piaget stage is characterized by mastering it?

Quantity remains despite form changes; concrete operational stage. Understanding that physical properties stay constant despite appearance changes.
Identify the correct Erikson stage for late adulthood: integrity vs despair focuses on what evaluation?

Life review leading to acceptance or regret. Reflecting on life's meaning and accomplishments.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Common in preoperational stage; child assumes others see as they do.
Identify the concept: A child learns best when an adult provides guided hints.

Zone of proximal development (often implemented via scaffolding). Adult support bridges current ability and potential development.
What cognitive ability is central to Piaget's formal operational stage?

Abstract and hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Allows systematic testing of hypotheses and considering possibilities.
What are the four Piaget stages in order from birth to adulthood?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational. These stages span from birth (0-2y) through adolescence (11+y).
What is centration in the preoperational stage?

Focusing on one aspect of a situation. Child can't consider multiple dimensions simultaneously (e.g., height AND width).
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory of adaptation?

Interpreting new info using existing schemas. Like calling all four-legged animals "dogs" based on existing dog schema.
What is the defining feature of Piaget's formal operational stage (about 12+ years)?

Abstract reasoning and systematic hypothesis testing. Adolescents can think about possibilities and test ideas scientifically.
What is the defining feature of Piaget's preoperational stage (about 2–7 years)?

Symbolic thought with limited logical operations. Children use symbols but lack logical reasoning abilities.
What is Piaget's preoperational stage age range and key limitation?

2–7 years; lacks conservation (egocentrism). Children can't understand others' perspectives or that quantity remains constant.
What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage age range?

Birth to 2 years. First stage focuses on sensory experiences and motor activities.
What is the primary claim of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development?

Cognition develops through social interaction and cultural tools. Emphasizes language and culture as drivers of cognitive growth.
What is the defining feature of avoidant attachment in Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

Shows little distress and avoids caregiver on reunion. Child appears independent but suppresses attachment needs.
What is the typical pattern of fluid intelligence across the lifespan?

Peaks in early adulthood, then declines. Problem-solving and processing speed decrease with age.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Fitting new info into existing schemas. Like calling all four-legged animals "dogs" based on existing schema.
Which Piaget stage (about 7 to 11 years) includes conservation and logical operations on concrete objects?

Concrete operational stage. This stage marks the emergence of logical thinking applied to tangible scenarios, enabling concepts like classification and seriation.
Identify the cognitive change most associated with normal aging: episodic or semantic memory decline?

Episodic memory declines more than semantic memory. Personal memories fade more than general knowledge with age.
Which attachment pattern shows distress on separation and comfort on reunion in the Strange Situation?

Secure attachment. Child uses caregiver as secure base for exploration; most healthy pattern.
What is centration in Piaget's theory?

Focusing on one feature while ignoring others. Preoperational limitation preventing simultaneous consideration.
What is object permanence?

Understanding that objects exist even when not perceived. Key milestone showing mental representation develops around 8-12 months.
What is theory of mind in child development?

Understanding that others have beliefs, desires, and perspectives. Develops around age 4-5, crucial for social interaction.
What is Piaget's formal operational stage age range?

11 years and older. Final stage extending through adolescence and adulthood.
What limitation remains in the concrete operational stage regarding reasoning?

Difficulty with abstract or hypothetical problems. Can solve real-world problems but struggle with "what if" scenarios.
What is the core claim of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory about development?

Cognition develops through social interaction and cultural tools. Language and culture shape thinking, not just individual maturation.
What is conservation, and which Piaget stage is required to pass conservation tasks?

Quantity remains same despite shape change; concrete operational. Understanding develops around age 7 with logical thinking abilities.
Identify the correct Erikson stage for young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation centers on what outcome?

Forming close, committed relationships. Success leads to lasting bonds; failure to isolation.
What is the primary focus of information-processing approaches to development?

Changes in attention, memory, and problem-solving. Views cognition as computer-like processing that improves with age.
Identify the parenting style: low warmth and high control.

Authoritarian parenting. Strict rules with little emotional warmth or flexibility.
Identify the parenting style: high warmth and low control.

Permissive parenting. Indulgent and responsive but sets few boundaries or rules.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Interpreting new info using existing schemas. Like fitting new experiences into existing mental frameworks.
What is theory of mind, and when does it typically emerge?

Attributing mental states to others; around age 4–5 years. Enables understanding that others have different beliefs and knowledge.
What is the key cognitive milestone that defines Piaget's sensorimotor stage?

Object permanence. Understanding that objects exist even when not visible.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?

Tasks doable with help but not yet independently. Gap between current ability and potential with guidance.
Which parenting style is low warmth and low control, often linked to poor self-regulation?

Neglectful (uninvolved) parenting. Parents emotionally distant and provide minimal guidance.
What is object permanence in cognitive development?

Knowing objects exist when out of sight. Major milestone around 8 months; foundation for memory development.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as skill increases. Like training wheels that help until child can ride alone.
What is a schema in Piagetian theory?

A cognitive framework used to organize and interpret information. Schemas serve as building blocks in cognitive development, allowing individuals to categorize experiences and adapt to new information.
What is object permanence in Piaget's theory?

Understanding objects exist when out of sight. Major cognitive milestone typically achieved around 8-12 months.
What is Piaget's formal operational stage age range and hallmark ability?

12+ years; abstract and hypothetical reasoning. Final stage enabling scientific reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
Which Piaget stage includes mastery of conservation and reversibility (about 7–11 years)?

Concrete operational stage. Logical thinking emerges for concrete objects.
What is centration in the preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient aspect while ignoring others. Limits logical thinking in preoperational children.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Young children assume everyone sees what they see (three-mountain task).
What is the A-not-B error, and what does it indicate about infant cognition?

Searching old location A; incomplete object permanence/executive control. Infants perseverate to location A despite seeing object moved to B.
What is Piaget's concrete operational stage age range?

7 to 11 years. School-age period of logical but concrete thinking.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?

Tasks doable with guidance but not yet independently. Gap between current ability and potential with help.
What is theory of mind, and when does it typically emerge?

Attributing mental states to self/others; typically emerges ~4 to 5 years. Enables understanding that others have different thoughts/beliefs.
Which Piaget stage best fits an infant who searches for a hidden toy after it is covered?

Sensorimotor stage. Shows object permanence, a key sensorimotor achievement.
In Erikson's theory, what is the primary psychosocial task of late adulthood?

Integrity vs. despair. Reflecting on life with satisfaction versus regret and bitterness.
Which Piaget stage (about 12 years and older) supports abstract and hypothetical reasoning?

Formal operational stage. This advanced stage allows for systematic thinking about possibilities, ideals, and abstract concepts beyond concrete reality.
What is conservation as tested in Piagetian tasks?

Quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. Understanding that physical properties stay constant despite perceptual changes.
Which Piaget stage first supports conservation reliably: preoperational, concrete operational, or formal operational?

Concrete operational. Logical thinking about concrete objects enables conservation tasks.
What is the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

Fluid: novel problem-solving; crystallized: learned knowledge. Fluid handles new situations; crystallized uses accumulated knowledge.
What is conservation in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Quantity remains same despite shape change. Key milestone showing logical thinking development around age 7.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature while ignoring others. Preoperational children can't consider multiple aspects simultaneously.
What is centration in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature only. Leads to errors in conservation tasks like water in different glasses.
What is conservation in Piagetian theory?

Understanding that quantity is preserved despite changes in form. Marks transition from preoperational to concrete operational thinking.
What is Piaget's concrete operational stage, and what is its approximate age range?

Concrete operational: logical operations on concrete objects; ~7 to 11. Children can think logically but need physical objects present.
What is the primary claim of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory about cognitive development?

Cognition develops through social interaction. Language and culture shape thinking; contrasts with Piaget's individual focus.
What is equilibration in Piaget's theory?

Balancing assimilation and accommodation. Cognitive balance achieved through adapting schemas to experience.
What is equilibrium in Piagetian cognitive development?

Balanced state when schemas fit experience. Cognitive comfort when understanding matches reality; drives learning when disrupted.
What is the defining feature of Piaget's concrete operational stage (about 7–11 years)?

Logical operations applied to concrete, tangible situations. Children can think logically about physical objects and events.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?

Gap between solo ability and ability with guidance. Optimal learning occurs in this developmental space between abilities.
What is Piaget's preoperational stage (age range and key limitation)?

2–7 years; lacks conservation and reversibility. Symbolic thinking emerges but logical reasoning is limited.
What is the best definition of a schema in cognitive development?

Organized mental framework for interpreting experience. Mental structures that organize and interpret information.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as competence increases. Teaching method that adjusts to learner's developing abilities.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Changing mental structures when new info doesn't fit.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Child assumes others see/think/feel exactly as they do.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Modifying a schema to fit new information. Changing mental structures when new info doesn't fit existing ones.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn as competence increases. Like training wheels - helps learners until they can perform alone.
What is object permanence, and in which Piaget stage does it emerge?

Awareness objects exist when unseen; sensorimotor stage. Develops around 8-12 months as prefrontal cortex matures.
What is equilibration in Piaget's theory?

Balancing assimilation and accommodation to reduce cognitive disequilibrium. Drive to maintain cognitive balance between new and existing knowledge.
Which Piaget stage is characterized by mastery of conservation and reversibility?

Concrete operational stage. Third stage where logical thinking about concrete objects develops.
What is a cognitive schema in developmental psychology?

Organized mental framework for interpreting information. Mental structures that help organize and interpret experiences.
Which Piaget stage is marked by conservation and reversibility of operations?

Concrete operational stage. Ages 7-11, children can think logically about concrete objects.
What is egocentrism in the preoperational stage (Piaget)?

Difficulty taking perspectives other than one's own. Classic example: child thinks moon follows them when walking.
What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Tasks doable with help but not alone. Gap between independent ability and potential with guidance from others.
What is the key cognitive achievement of the preoperational stage?

Symbolic thought and language use without logical operations. Children can represent things mentally but can't think logically yet.
What does "theory of mind" refer to in cognitive development?

Attributing mental states to self and others to predict behavior. Develops around age 4; crucial for social interaction and empathy.
What is separation anxiety typically taken to indicate in infant cognition?

Emerging object permanence/attachment to caregiver. Shows cognitive awareness that caregivers continue to exist when absent.
What is equilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Balance between assimilation and accommodation. Drives cognitive development through schema adjustment.
What is centration in the preoperational stage?

Focusing on one salient feature while ignoring others. This perceptual limitation prevents children from considering multiple aspects of a situation, hindering comprehensive problem-solving.
What is a schema in cognitive development?

A mental framework for organizing information. Cognitive structures that help process and organize experiences.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Tasks achievable with guidance but not yet independently. Gap between current ability and potential with assistance.
Identify the concept: a child changes a schema after a dog bites them, redefining "dog" as "can bite."

Accommodation. Schema modification occurs when experience contradicts expectations.
Identify the Piaget stage: an infant learns by coordinating senses and motor actions.

Sensorimotor stage. Birth to 2 years; learning through sensory exploration and movement.
Identify the Piaget stage: a child reasons logically about concrete objects and conservation.

Concrete operational stage. Ages 7-11; logical thinking about tangible objects and events.
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. Changing mental structures when new info doesn't fit existing schemas.
What is the typical pattern of cognitive change in normal aging regarding processing speed?

Processing speed generally declines with age. In normal aging, neural efficiency decreases, leading to slower information processing and response times in cognitive tasks.
Identify the Piaget term for interpreting new information using existing schemas.

Assimilation. Fitting new experiences into existing mental frameworks without changing them.
What is Piaget's preoperational stage age range?

2 to 7 years. Second stage marked by symbolic thinking but logical limitations.
What is the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

Fluid: novel problem-solving; crystallized: accumulated knowledge. Fluid adapts to new problems; crystallized uses learned facts.
What is the difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural) memory?

Explicit: conscious facts/events; implicit: skills/priming without awareness. Explicit requires conscious recall; implicit operates automatically.
What is the key cognitive feature of Erikson's identity vs. role confusion stage?

Adolescent identity formation and self-concept. Teens develop abstract thinking about self and future roles.
What is the key limitation in Piaget's preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years)?

Lack of logical operations; intuitive thought. Children can use symbols but can't perform mental operations yet.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. Fitting new experiences into existing mental frameworks.
What is conservation in Piagetian tasks?

Quantity remains constant despite form change. Water poured into different shaped glasses still has same amount.
What type of reasoning becomes possible in Piaget's formal operational stage?

Abstract and hypothetical reasoning. Allows thinking about possibilities and hypotheses.
What is the typical pattern of fluid intelligence across the lifespan?

Peaks in early adulthood, then declines with age. Processing speed and novel problem-solving decline after 20s.
Identify the Piaget process: changing a "dog" schema after seeing a cat called a pet.

Accommodation. Schema changed because cat doesn't fit existing dog schema.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's view of learning?

Temporary support that is gradually withdrawn. Adjustable assistance matching learner's current level.
What does Vygotsky propose about the role of language in cognitive development?

Language drives thinking; private speech supports self-regulation. Children talk to themselves to guide behavior and solve problems.
Which Piaget stage features object permanence and goal-directed behavior in infants?

Sensorimotor stage. First stage (0-2 years) where infants learn through senses and motor actions.
What is the primary limitation of preoperational thinking that explains failure on conservation tasks?

Centration (and insufficient mental operations). These characteristics prevent preoperational children from applying reversible thinking or considering multiple variables in tasks.
What is the core claim of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Children progress through qualitatively distinct stages of thinking. Development occurs in discontinuous, qualitatively different stages of thinking.
What is egocentrism in the preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. It arises from the child's limited ability to decenter and consider viewpoints different from their own during early cognitive stages.
Identify the Piaget concept: a child says a taller glass has more juice after pouring equal amounts.

Centration (failure of conservation). Child focuses on height, ignoring width changes.
What is assimilation in Piagetian theory?

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. Fitting new experiences into pre-existing mental frameworks.
Which parenting style is low warmth and high control (high demandingness)?

Authoritarian. Strict rules with little emotional warmth or explanation.
Identify the Piaget stage: An adolescent systematically tests hypotheses in a lab task.

Formal operational stage. Abstract thinking allows systematic hypothesis testing.
Which Piaget stage includes conservation and reversibility (age range)?

Concrete operational stage, about 7–11 years. Children can think logically about concrete objects and events.
Which concept describes children performing better with guidance than alone: ZPD or fixation?

Zone of proximal development (ZPD). Gap between independent ability and potential with assistance.
What is the core idea of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Children actively construct knowledge through stage-like changes. Children are active learners who progress through distinct developmental stages.
What is object permanence in cognitive development?

Understanding that objects exist even when not perceived. Key milestone showing mental representation develops around 8-12 months.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?

Temporary support that is gradually removed as competence increases. This technique promotes skill acquisition by offering adjustable assistance that fosters independence in sociocultural contexts.
What is a common cognitive explanation for the reminiscence bump in older adults?

Enhanced encoding of novel, identity-forming early-adult experiences. Peak memory for ages 15-30 due to many significant life events.
What is the key claim of the information-processing approach to cognitive development?

Cognition develops via gradual improvements in attention, memory, and strategies. Views development as continuous enhancement of mental processes.
What is Piaget's concrete operational stage age range and hallmark ability?

7–11 years; conservation and logical operations. Children can think logically about concrete objects and events.
Which parenting style is high warmth, high control, and best predicts competence?

Authoritative. Combines responsiveness with clear expectations and reasoning.
What is the key distinction between explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural) memory?

Explicit is conscious recall; implicit is nonconscious skill/priming. Explicit requires effort to retrieve; implicit operates automatically.
What is theory of mind in child development?

Ability to attribute mental states to self and others. It develops in childhood, allowing for empathy, deception, and social understanding by inferring others' beliefs and intentions.
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. Like fitting a dog into existing "four-legged animal" schema.
What is object permanence in Piagetian theory?

Understanding that objects exist when not perceived. Key milestone around 8 months when infants realize hidden objects still exist.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory?

Temporary support adjusted as competence increases. Like training wheels - gradually removed as child masters the skill.
What is the key claim of Vygotsky's sociocultural approach to cognitive development?

Cognition develops through social interaction and cultural tools. Vygotsky posits that cognitive abilities are shaped by collaborative activities and cultural artifacts rather than isolated maturation.
Identify the memory process primarily impaired in Alzheimer disease early on.

Formation of new explicit (episodic) memories. Hippocampal damage affects recent memory formation first.
Which Piaget stage is defined by symbolic thought and egocentrism (age range)?

Preoperational stage, about 2–7 years. Children use symbols but can't yet think logically or see others' views.
What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Range of tasks doable with guidance but not yet independently. Vygotsky's key concept emphasizing social learning potential.
Which Piaget stage (about 2 to 7 years) features symbolic thought but poor logical operations?

Preoperational stage. In this phase, children develop representational abilities like language but lack the capacity for systematic logical reasoning.
What is the core idea of Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development?

Children progress through qualitatively distinct stages of thinking. Development occurs in discrete, fundamentally different ways of thinking.
Which Piaget stage is characterized by symbolic thought and egocentrism (about 2–7 years)?

Preoperational stage. Children can't see others' perspectives yet.
Which Piaget stage best fits a child who can conserve volume but cannot reason abstractly?

Concrete operational stage. Has logical thinking but limited to concrete situations.
What is the key limitation in preoperational thought called egocentrism?

Difficulty taking another person's perspective. Children assume others see/think exactly as they do.
What is conservation in Piagetian tasks?

Quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. Understanding that physical properties stay constant despite perceptual changes.
Identify the Erikson stage defined by "identity vs. role confusion."

Adolescence. Teens explore who they are versus confusion about their role in society.
What is the core idea of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Children build knowledge through stage-like, active construction of schemas. Piaget emphasized children as active learners who construct understanding through developmental stages.
What does the term "stranger anxiety" refer to in infancy?

Distress in the presence of unfamiliar people. Normal developmental response around 8-12 months.
Which parenting style is low warmth and high control, emphasizing obedience and punishment?

Authoritarian parenting. Strict rules without emotional warmth or flexibility.
Which concept is shown when a tutor gives hints that decrease as a learner improves on a task?

Scaffolding. Support decreases as learner gains independence.
Which Piaget stage (birth to about 2 years) is defined by learning through senses and actions?

Sensorimotor stage. During this initial phase, infants build knowledge primarily through sensory experiences and motor activities, laying foundations for later cognition.
Which parenting style is high warmth and high control, and is linked to best outcomes?

Authoritative parenting. Combines responsiveness with reasonable demands and explanations.
In Erikson's theory, what is the primary psychosocial task of young adulthood?

Intimacy vs. isolation. Focus on forming close relationships versus remaining isolated.
What does the information-processing approach emphasize in cognitive development?

Development as changes in attention, memory, and processing strategies. This perspective views cognitive growth as enhancements in how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time.
What is the key feature of Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)?

Learning through sensory input and motor actions. Infants explore world through senses and movement.
Identify the Piaget stage: A child can solve conservation tasks but only with real objects.

Concrete operational stage. Logical thinking emerges but requires concrete materials.
Identify the concept: a child calls every four-legged animal a "dog" because it fits an existing schema.

Assimilation. Using existing schemas to interpret new experiences.
What is object permanence in Piaget's theory?

Understanding that objects exist when not perceived. Key milestone showing mental representation develops around 8-12 months.
What is a schema in Piaget's theory?

A cognitive framework used to organize and interpret information. Mental structures that help categorize and understand experiences.
Which Piaget stage is characterized by mastery of conservation and reversibility (about 7 to 11 years)?

Concrete operational stage. Children can think logically about concrete objects and understand conservation.
What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Tasks achievable with guidance but not yet independently. Gap between current ability and potential with adult/peer help.
What is the typical pattern of change in fluid intelligence across adulthood?

Fluid intelligence tends to peak in early adulthood then decline. This form of intelligence, reliant on speed and novel reasoning, diminishes due to age-related declines in brain function.
Identify the Vygotsky concept: tasks a child can do only with assistance.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD). Gap between independent ability and potential with guidance.
What is scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?

Temporary support to reach higher performance. Like training wheels gradually removed as child masters biking.
What is the key feature of Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)?

Learning via senses and motor actions. Infants explore world through physical interaction before language develops.
What is accommodation in Piagetian cognitive development?

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information. It facilitates cognitive adaptation by revising mental frameworks to better align with incompatible new experiences.
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?

Gap between what a learner can do alone and with guidance. It represents the optimal learning zone where social guidance can bridge the divide to independent mastery of skills.
What is egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage?

Difficulty taking another's perspective. Classic example: believing everyone sees what they see.

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