- An economist examined the effects of a new commuter rail line on small businesses near stations. Using tax records, she found that in the first year after the line opened, retail sales increased most in neighborhoods that also relaxed zoning rules for mixed-use development. In neighborhoods where zoning remained restrictive, sales increases were smaller and were concentrated in businesses that already had high foot traffic before the rail line. The economist also noted that commercial rents rose in all station areas, but the steepest rent increases occurred in the mixed-use neighborhoods. Interviews with business owners suggested that some long-standing low-margin shops closed after rents increased, while newly opened businesses tended to be higher-margin services. The economist cautioned that raw sales growth alone could obscure changes in the composition of businesses.
Which statement is most strongly supported by the information given?
Answer: In mixed-use station areas, some of the observed sales growth may reflect a shift toward higher-margin businesses rather than uniform gains among incumbents.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage reports that retail sales increased most in mixed-use neighborhoods with relaxed zoning, but also notes steep rent increases there, closures of low-margin shops, and openings of higher-margin businesses. The economist cautions that raw sales growth could obscure changes in business composition, suggesting that some growth reflects shifts rather than uniform gains. Therefore, in mixed-use station areas, some observed sales growth may reflect a shift toward higher-margin businesses rather than uniform gains among incumbents, as supported by the interviews and the caution about raw data. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims that relaxing zoning guarantees all small businesses will thrive, but this is too absolute and ignores evidence of closures due to rents. Another option like E overstates that the rail line had no effect because rents rose everywhere, which contradicts the reported sales increases.
- Read the passage and answer the question.
A linguist analyzed recordings of a minority language spoken in two neighboring towns. In Town A, speakers frequently used a particular suffix to mark evidentiality (whether the speaker personally witnessed an event). In Town B, the same suffix appeared less often in spontaneous conversation, though speakers still judged sentences containing it as grammatical in elicitation tasks. The linguist also found that Town B had substantially more bilingual speakers who used the national language daily for work and schooling. In the national language, evidentiality is typically expressed through separate adverbs rather than suffixes. The linguist emphasized that reduced frequency of a form in casual speech does not necessarily imply that the form has disappeared from the grammar.
The passage suggests which of the following?
Answer: The evidential suffix is used less frequently in Town B partly because bilingual speakers may rely on alternative strategies influenced by the national language.
This question tests inference skills regarding language change and bilingualism. Valid inferences must be grounded in textual evidence rather than speculation. The passage indicates Town B has more bilingual speakers who use the national language daily, and that the national language expresses evidentiality through adverbs rather than suffixes. Combined with Town B's reduced suffix use in conversation, this suggests bilingual speakers may be influenced by the national language's patterns. Option B correctly infers this connection between bilingualism and alternative strategies. Option A is contradicted by the text (speakers still judge it as grammatical), while option E makes an unsupported leap to "rapid extinction."
- A chemist compared two catalysts for converting carbon dioxide into a useful chemical feedstock. Catalyst A achieved higher conversion efficiency in short laboratory runs but lost activity after repeated cycles, apparently due to surface restructuring. Catalyst B had lower initial efficiency but maintained stable activity across many cycles. When the chemist calculated total product generated over 100 cycles, Catalyst B yielded more cumulative product despite its lower per-run efficiency. The chemist notes that industrial processes often prioritize long-term throughput and stability over peak initial performance.
It can be reasonably concluded that:
Answer: Catalyst B may be more suitable than Catalyst A for industrial deployment where repeated cycling is required.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage reports Catalyst A had higher initial efficiency but lost activity over cycles due to restructuring, while Catalyst B was stable with lower per-run efficiency but higher cumulative output over 100 cycles. Industrial processes prioritize long-term stability and throughput. Therefore, Catalyst B may be more suitable than Catalyst A for industrial deployment where repeated cycling is required, as its stability yields better overall performance. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims Catalyst A will outperform in cumulative output long-term, but this contradicts the 100-cycle calculation. Another option like E states surface restructuring is always beneficial, which ignores its role in A's activity loss.
- A journal editor examined citation patterns after introducing a double-blind peer-review policy (reviewers and authors anonymous to each other). In the three years before the change, papers from the journal's host institution accounted for 18% of accepted articles; in the three years after, they accounted for 11%. Over the same periods, the proportion of submissions from the host institution remained approximately constant. The editor also noted that acceptance rates for papers from institutions with which editorial-board members had past collaborations declined slightly after the policy change. Which statement is most strongly supported by the information given?
Answer: The policy change likely reduced advantages previously associated with institutional proximity to the journal's editors.
This question tests inference about the effects of policy changes. Valid inferences must be supported by the passage without being explicitly stated. The data shows that host-institution papers dropped from 18% to 11% of acceptances after double-blind review was introduced, while submission proportions stayed constant. This suggests the previous system gave host-institution authors an advantage, likely due to reviewers knowing their institutional affiliation. The correct answer infers that double-blind review reduced this proximity advantage. Option E merely restates a fact from the passage rather than making an inference, while option A overgeneralizes beyond what the evidence supports.
- A botanist studying pollination in an alpine meadow compared seed set in a wildflower across two elevations. At lower elevation, the flower was visited by a diverse set of insects, including bees and flies, and seed set was high. At higher elevation, overall insect visitation was lower, but a single bumblebee species accounted for most visits; seed set remained moderate rather than collapsing. When the botanist experimentally excluded insects using mesh bags, seed set dropped sharply at both elevations. The botanist concludes that the flower depends on insect pollination but may rely on different pollinator assemblages across environments.
Which statement is most strongly supported by the information given?
Answer: At high elevation, the flower likely experiences some functional compensation from the dominant bumblebee species despite reduced overall visitation.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage indicates high-elevation seed set remained moderate despite lower overall visitation, dominated by one bumblebee species, while exclusion dropped seed set sharply at both elevations, showing insect dependence. Diverse insects visited at low elevation with high seed set. Therefore, at high elevation, the flower likely experiences some functional compensation from the dominant bumblebee species despite reduced overall visitation, maintaining moderate reproduction. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option B, claims the flower is fully self-pollinating at high elevation, but this contradicts the sharp drop with exclusion. Another option like D speculates extinction if the bumblebee disappears, which is too extreme and not supported.
- A public-health team evaluated a text-message reminder system for vaccination appointments. Clinics that adopted the system reported a lower no-show rate than clinics that did not. However, adoption was not randomized: clinics chose whether to use the system, and those that adopted it tended to be larger and to have dedicated scheduling staff. The team also found that among adopting clinics, no-show rates were lowest in clinics that sent reminders in multiple languages. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: Because adoption was not randomized, differences between adopting and nonadopting clinics could partly explain the observed no-show-rate gap.
This question tests inference about confounding factors. Valid inferences must be supported by the passage without being directly stated. The passage reveals that adoption wasn't randomized and that adopting clinics tended to be larger with dedicated scheduling staff. These pre-existing differences could contribute to lower no-show rates independent of the reminder system. The correct answer recognizes this potential confounding without dismissing the reminder system entirely. Option A incorrectly claims definitive causation, ignoring the selection bias issue highlighted in the passage.
- In "Her frugality showed in small habits: she reused envelopes and mended her socks," the habits relate to "frugality" in that they
Answer: illustrate it
Reusing envelopes and mending socks are concrete instances of thrift, so they illustrate her frugality. They do not explain its origin; the colon introduces examples, not causes.
- In an archival analysis, a historian compared the budgeting practices of two early 20th-century municipal governments. City R published detailed annual budgets and held public hearings before final approval; City S published only summary totals and did not record deliberations in accessible minutes. Over a 15-year span, both cities experienced similar economic shocks, but City R showed smaller year-to-year fluctuations in infrastructure spending. The historian also found that in City S, major spending increases often followed election years, whereas City R's spending increases were more evenly distributed. The historian cautions that publication practices do not automatically reveal motives but can affect how easily citizens and journalists scrutinize decisions.
Which statement is most strongly supported by the information given?
Answer: City R's greater budget transparency likely made sustained public scrutiny of spending decisions easier than in City S.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage describes City R's detailed budgets and public hearings leading to smaller fluctuations in infrastructure spending, while City S's summary totals and inaccessible minutes correlated with larger, election-tied increases. The historian notes that publication practices affect scrutiny by citizens and journalists. Therefore, City R's greater budget transparency likely made sustained public scrutiny of spending decisions easier than in City S, contributing to more stable patterns. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, assumes City S's officials were more corrupt, but this is speculative and not supported by evidence. Another option like E overgeneralizes that public hearings alone would stabilize City S's spending regardless of other factors, which is too absolute.
- In a study of urban heat mitigation, researchers compared three neighborhoods that installed different combinations of interventions over a five-year period. Neighborhood L replaced most dark asphalt with high-albedo pavement but did not increase tree canopy; Neighborhood T expanded tree canopy substantially but left pavement largely unchanged; Neighborhood M implemented both measures at moderate levels. The researchers reported that summertime afternoon surface temperatures decreased in all three neighborhoods relative to baseline. However, only Neighborhood T showed a consistent reduction in overnight air temperatures during heat waves, and residents there reported fewer sleep disruptions. The researchers also noted that high-albedo pavement produced the largest midday surface-temperature reductions but coincided with increased glare complaints and no measurable change in nighttime air temperature. In Neighborhood M, modest reductions occurred for both midday surface temperatures and overnight air temperatures, though neither matched the largest reductions observed in L (midday) or T (overnight). City officials are considering which single intervention to prioritize in other areas where the primary public-health concern is heat-wave mortality, which is most strongly associated with sustained elevated nighttime air temperatures rather than peak daytime surface temperatures.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: If officials must choose only one intervention to address heat-wave mortality risk, expanding tree canopy is the better-supported option.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage indicates that heat-wave mortality is most strongly associated with sustained elevated nighttime air temperatures, and only Neighborhood T, with expanded tree canopy, showed consistent reductions in overnight air temperatures during heat waves. In contrast, Neighborhood L's high-albedo pavement reduced daytime surface temperatures but did not affect nighttime air temperatures, while Neighborhood M's moderate approach yielded modest but not maximal reductions in either metric. Therefore, if officials must choose only one intervention to address heat-wave mortality risk, expanding tree canopy is the better-supported option, as it directly targets the key factor linked to mortality. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims high-albedo pavement is ineffective at reducing any type of heat exposure, but this is too absolute and ignores its stated effectiveness on daytime surface temperatures. Another option like E overgeneralizes Neighborhood M's results to claim moderate implementation always outperforms intensive single measures, which is speculative and not supported by the evidence.
- Read the passage and answer the question.
A museum evaluated two label formats for a new exhibit: traditional paragraph labels and a question-based format that posed a short question followed by a brief answer. Visitors were randomly assigned entry times that corresponded to one of the two label formats, and their dwell time at each display case was recorded. The museum also administered a short quiz at the exit that tested recall of three factual details from the exhibit. Average dwell time was higher in the question-based condition, but quiz scores were statistically indistinguishable between the two conditions. In follow-up interviews, visitors in the question-based condition more often reported that the exhibit "felt easier to navigate," while visitors in the paragraph-label condition more often reported that they "learned a lot." The researchers cautioned that self-reports can reflect expectations about what "learning" should feel like and may not track objective recall.
It can be reasonably concluded that:
Answer: Question-based labels increased how long visitors spent at displays without measurably improving recall of the specific facts tested.
This question requires inferring a reasonable conclusion from the museum study data. An inference should be logically supported without being directly stated in the passage. The passage explicitly states that average dwell time was higher in the question-based condition, but quiz scores were statistically indistinguishable between conditions. This directly supports the inference that question-based labels increased viewing time without improving factual recall. Option A accurately captures this relationship between the two measured outcomes. Option C is too strong ("prevent learning"), while option E speculates about untested conditions (conceptual understanding was never measured).
- A neuroscience study compared two training regimens intended to improve older adults' memory. Group S practiced memorizing word lists using spaced repetition; Group G played a commercially available "brain game" marketed for memory enhancement. After eight weeks, Group S improved on the specific word-list test used in training and also showed modest improvement on a different verbal recall test. Group G improved on the game itself but showed no statistically significant change on either memory test. The researchers note that transfer of training effects to untrained tasks is often considered stronger evidence of genuine cognitive improvement than gains limited to the practiced activity.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: Spaced repetition is more likely than the brain game to produce benefits that generalize beyond the trained activity.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage shows Group S improved on trained and untrained memory tests via spaced repetition, while Group G improved only on the game itself, with no significant memory test changes. Transfer to untrained tasks is noted as stronger evidence of cognitive improvement. Therefore, spaced repetition is more likely than the brain game to produce benefits that generalize beyond the trained activity, as it demonstrated broader transfer effects. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims brain games can never improve any ability, but this is too categorical, as game-specific gains occurred. Another option like B assumes equal real-world improvement from game gains, which contradicts the lack of test changes.
- A city's transportation department piloted two bus-route changes. On Route M, buses were scheduled every 10 minutes instead of every 15; on Route N, the schedule was unchanged but real-time arrival displays were installed at major stops. After three months, on-time performance improved by 2 percentage points on Route M and by 9 percentage points on Route N. Passenger counts rose modestly on both routes, but customer-service calls complaining about "unpredictable waits" fell sharply only on Route N. The department noted that traffic patterns during the pilot were typical for the season. It can be reasonably concluded that:
Answer: Real-time arrival information likely reduced riders' perception of waiting unpredictability more than the frequency change did.
This question requires inferring conclusions from comparative data. Inferences must be logically supported by the evidence without being explicitly stated. The passage shows that Route N, which only added real-time displays, had much better on-time performance improvement (9% vs 2%) and was the only route where complaints about "unpredictable waits" fell sharply. This suggests that real-time information addressed riders' perception of unpredictability more effectively than increased frequency did. The correct answer follows logically because it explains why Route N saw better results despite having no schedule change. Option E is tempting but is explicitly stated rather than inferred, while option A is too broad and contradicted by Route M's modest improvement.
- Read the passage and answer the question.
To reduce electricity demand during summer afternoons, a utility offered households a time-of-use (TOU) pricing plan with higher rates from 3–7 p.m. and lower rates at other times. Enrollment was voluntary. After one season, enrolled households showed lower peak-period consumption than non-enrolled households. However, total seasonal consumption (kWh) was similar between the two groups. A separate analysis within the enrolled group found that households with programmable thermostats shifted more usage out of the peak window than those without, but both subgroups reduced peak-period consumption relative to their own pre-TOU baselines. The utility noted that households choosing TOU may already be more attentive to energy use than the average customer.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: The observed difference in peak-period consumption between enrolled and non-enrolled households may partly reflect self-selection rather than the pricing plan alone.
This question asks you to infer from information about the electricity pricing study. Inferences must follow logically from given facts without being explicitly stated. The passage notes that enrollment was voluntary and that "households choosing TOU may already be more attentive to energy use." This suggests a self-selection effect where energy-conscious households were more likely to enroll. Therefore, the observed differences between enrolled and non-enrolled households may reflect pre-existing characteristics rather than just the pricing plan's effect. Option B correctly identifies this potential confound. Option D is too restrictive ("only ones capable"), while option E makes unsupported claims about mandatory enrollment.
- A climatologist compared two methods for estimating historical drought severity in a semi-arid region: tree-ring width reconstructions and lake-sediment isotope records. For the period 1700–1850, both methods identified several multi-year droughts, but the tree-ring reconstructions indicated more frequent short droughts than the lake record did. The climatologist noted that tree growth responds quickly to seasonal moisture deficits, while lake isotopes integrate hydrological changes over longer timescales and may smooth short events. For the 20th century, both methods aligned more closely with instrumental rainfall data.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: Tree-ring reconstructions may be more sensitive than lake isotopes to brief drought episodes.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage indicates tree-ring reconstructions showed more frequent short droughts than lake isotopes for 1700–1850, with trees responding quickly to seasonal moisture and lakes integrating over longer timescales, potentially smoothing short events. Both aligned better with 20th-century data. Therefore, tree-ring reconstructions may be more sensitive than lake isotopes to brief drought episodes, capturing short-term variations that lakes average out. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims lake-sediment records are useless for droughts, but this is too extreme, as they identified multi-year events. Another option like D states tree-rings systematically exaggerate all droughts, which overstates and ignores their alignment with modern data.
- Read the passage and answer the question.
An economist examined the introduction of a citywide bike-share program and its relationship to public transit use. In the first year after launch, subway ridership declined slightly on weekends but was unchanged on weekdays. Bus ridership increased modestly on routes that connected residential areas to newly installed bike-share stations, while bus ridership was flat on routes with no nearby stations. Survey data indicated that many users rode bikes for short trips that they previously made on foot or by bus, and a smaller share reported using bikes to reach subway stops. The economist noted that transit systems often experience different demand patterns on weekends than on weekdays.
Which statement is most strongly supported by the information given?
Answer: Bike-share likely served as a complement to some bus routes near stations while having limited impact on weekday subway ridership.
This question requires inferring the relationship between bike-share and public transit use. Inferences must be supported by the data patterns described. The passage states bus ridership increased on routes connecting to bike-share stations while remaining flat elsewhere, and weekday subway ridership was unchanged. Survey data showed many users made trips previously done on foot or by bus, with some using bikes to reach subway stops. This pattern suggests bike-share complemented bus routes (helping people reach stations) while having minimal weekday subway impact. Option B accurately captures this nuanced relationship. Option A contradicts the data (weekday subway was unchanged), while option C overstates the switching behavior.
- Read the passage and answer the question.
A political scientist studied the effects of open primary elections on candidate ideology in several states. In states that adopted open primaries, the average ideological score of winning candidates moved slightly toward the center over the next three election cycles. However, the shift was concentrated in competitive districts; in districts where one party routinely won by large margins, the average ideology of winners changed little. The researcher also found that turnout among self-identified independents rose modestly after open primaries were introduced, while turnout among strong partisans remained roughly stable. The study cautioned that district competitiveness can shape which voters campaigns prioritize.
The passage suggests which of the following?
Answer: In competitive districts, candidates may have greater incentive to appeal to independents whose participation increased under open primaries.
This question asks you to infer from the political science study on open primaries. Inferences must be supported by textual evidence rather than speculation. The passage indicates that ideological shifts toward the center were "concentrated in competitive districts" and that "district competitiveness can shape which voters campaigns prioritize." Combined with the finding that independent turnout rose under open primaries, this suggests candidates in competitive districts have more incentive to appeal to these newly participating independents. Option B correctly connects these pieces of evidence. Option C is too absolute ("always produce centrist winners"), while option E contradicts the passage's emphasis on competitiveness effects.
- A team of ecologists investigated why a particular invasive plant spread rapidly along a river corridor but remained sparse in adjacent upland areas. They found that seeds of the plant were frequently present in river sediment samples after seasonal floods, and germination rates were high in moist, nutrient-rich soils typical of floodplains. In upland soils, germination was lower, and seedlings that did emerge showed higher mortality during dry periods. The ecologists also observed that most mature plants in the corridor were clustered near points where floodwaters deposited debris, suggesting repeated seed delivery. They propose that managing floodplain disturbances could limit the invasion's expansion.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: Flood events likely contribute both to dispersal of seeds and to creation of favorable conditions for establishment along the river corridor.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage notes seeds were frequently in flood sediments, with high germination in moist, nutrient-rich floodplain soils, and mature plants clustered near flood debris points, while uplands had lower germination and higher seedling mortality in dry periods. Floods thus deliver seeds and create favorable moist, nutrient conditions. Therefore, flood events likely contribute both to dispersal of seeds and to creation of favorable conditions for establishment along the river corridor, explaining the rapid spread there versus uplands. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option A, claims the plant cannot survive in any upland environment, but this is too absolute, as some germination occurred despite higher mortality. Another option like D assumes human introduction near the river, which is speculative and not mentioned.
- A linguist studied how quickly new technical terms spread within an organization. In Department X, employees used a shared internal chat platform with public channels; in Department Y, employees primarily communicated through one-to-one email. When a new term was introduced in a training session attended by both departments, transcripts showed that Department X began using the term broadly within one week, while Department Y's usage remained confined to a few individuals for nearly a month. The linguist noted that the departments were similar in size and job function, and that both had comparable turnover during the study period. The passage suggests which of the following?
Answer: Public, many-to-many communication channels can accelerate the diffusion of new terminology within a group.
This question requires inferring about communication patterns. Inferences must be logically derived from the evidence presented. The passage contrasts Department X's public chat channels with Department Y's one-to-one emails, showing the new term spread within a week versus a month respectively. Since the departments were otherwise similar, we can infer that the public, many-to-many nature of chat channels accelerated terminology diffusion. The Aorrect answer captures this communication principle without overstatement. Option E is explicitly stated in the passage rather than inferred, while option B speculates about deliberate resistance without textual support.
- Marine biologists assessed the recovery of a kelp forest after a severe storm. They monitored three sites: Site A was adjacent to a protected marine reserve with abundant sea otters; Site B had few otters due to historical hunting and ongoing boat traffic; Site C had intermediate otter presence. Over two years, kelp cover increased fastest at Site A and slowest at Site B. The researchers also counted sea urchins, which graze kelp: urchin densities remained low at Site A, increased at Site B, and fluctuated at Site C. The team noted that the storm initially reduced kelp at all sites to similarly low levels, suggesting comparable starting conditions.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Answer: Sea otters likely contributed to kelp recovery by limiting sea urchin populations.
This question tests the ability to make a valid inference from the passage. A correct inference must be logically supported by the information provided without being directly stated. The passage reports that kelp cover increased fastest at Site A with abundant sea otters, slowest at Site B with few otters, and intermediate at Site C, while sea urchin densities remained low at A, increased at B, and fluctuated at C. Sea otters are known predators of urchins, which graze kelp, and the storm reduced kelp similarly at all sites initially. Therefore, sea otters likely contributed to kelp recovery by limiting sea urchin populations, as the patterns align with otter presence correlating to lower urchins and faster kelp regrowth. A tempting incorrect choice, such as option B, claims boat traffic is the sole cause of kelp decline everywhere, but this is too absolute and ignores the role of predators. Another option like D speculates that urchins were completely absent at Site A, which is not stated and exceeds the evidence of low densities.
- In a study of workplace training, a firm offered an optional online course on spreadsheet automation. Employees who completed the course were, on average, promoted sooner than employees who did not. However, before the course began, the completers already had higher performance-review scores and were more likely to have requested additional responsibilities from managers. The course content was identical for all participants, and completion required self-paced work outside normal hours. The passage suggests which of the following?
Answer: Employees who completed the course likely differed from noncompleters in motivation or prior performance.
This question tests inference about causation versus correlation. Valid inferences must be supported by evidence without being directly stated. The passage reveals that course completers already had higher performance scores and had requested more responsibilities before the course began. This pre-existing difference suggests that completers likely differed from non-completers in motivation or prior performance, rather than the course causing their success. The correct answer recognizes this selection bias without overstating the case. Option A incorrectly assumes causation, while option D speculates about prevention without textual support.
