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Decolonization
After 1900

How colonized peoples across Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean dismantled empires and built new nations in the twentieth century.

AP World History

What Is Decolonization?

Decolonization is the process by which colonized peoples gained political independence from imperial powers. It was not a single event but a global wave spanning decades: from the early twentieth century through the 1990s.

Understanding decolonization requires examining why empires weakened, how independence movements organized, and what challenges new nations faced after gaining sovereignty.

Root Causes of Decolonization

World Wars
Both WWI and WWII drained European empires of resources and moral authority, exposing the myth of European invincibility.
Nationalist Movements
Western-educated elites and grassroots organizers built mass movements demanding self-determination across Asia and Africa.
Cold War Pressure
The US and USSR both criticized colonialism (for different reasons), pressuring European powers to grant independence.

Key Timeline of Decolonization

1947
India & Pakistan
British India partitioned into two independent states
1954
French Indochina
Vietnam defeats France at Dien Bien Phu, ending French colonial rule
1957
Ghana (Gold Coast)
First sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence, led by Kwame Nkrumah
1960
"Year of Africa"
17 African nations gain independence in a single year
1962
Algeria
Achieves independence after brutal 8-year war with France
1975
Portuguese Africa
Mozambique, Angola, and Guinea-Bissau gain independence

Two Paths: Negotiated vs. Violent

Decolonization did not follow a single pattern. Some nations achieved independence through negotiation and nonviolent resistance, while others required armed struggle. The path depended on settler populations, colonial policies, and strategic interests.

Negotiated Violent
Method Nonviolent protest, political negotiation Armed revolution, guerrilla warfare
Key Example India (1947) Algeria (1954-1962)
Leader Gandhi, Nehru FLN, Frantz Fanon
Colonial Power Britain France
Settler Population Small Large (1 million pieds-noirs)

Case Study: India's Independence

British Raj 1858-1947 Nationalist Movement Indian National Congress Salt March (1930) Quit India (1942) Independence August 15, 1947 Partition: India & Pakistan Gandhi's Strategy: Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) Civil disobedience + mass mobilization + moral pressure

Case Study: Algeria's War of Independence

Algeria's path to independence (1954-1962) was one of the bloodiest decolonization conflicts. France considered Algeria part of metropolitan France, and over 1 million European settlers (pieds-noirs) resisted decolonization fiercely.

1
FLN launches armed revolt (1954): The National Liberation Front begins guerrilla warfare against French forces.
2
Battle of Algiers (1957): Urban guerrilla campaign met with systematic French torture, drawing international condemnation.
3
French political crisis (1958): The war destabilizes France itself, bringing de Gaulle to power.
4
Evian Accords (1962): Ceasefire and referendum lead to Algerian independence. Nearly 1 million settlers flee to France.

1960: The Year of Africa

Ghana Nigeria Congo Senegal Algeria (1962) Kenya 17 nations gained independence in 1960 alone

Pan-Africanism & the Bandung Conference

Pan-Africanism
A movement advocating unity and solidarity among all people of African descent. Leaders like Nkrumah, Du Bois, and Padmore promoted continental cooperation against colonialism.
Bandung Conference (1955)
29 Asian and African nations met in Indonesia to promote Afro-Asian solidarity, oppose colonialism, and assert a "Third World" identity independent of Cold War blocs.

The Cold War Complication

United States Capitalism / NATO Soviet Union Communism / Warsaw Newly Independent Nations Caught between superpowers Aid / Influence Aid / Influence Non-Aligned Movement (1961): Refusing to choose sides

Post-Independence Challenges

Arbitrary Borders
Colonial boundaries cut across ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, fueling internal conflicts in new nations.
Economic Dependency
Colonial economies were built to export raw materials. New nations struggled to industrialize and remained dependent on former colonizers.
Neocolonialism
Former colonial powers maintained influence through economic control, military bases, and political interference even after formal independence.

Key Leaders of Decolonization

Mohandas Gandhi
Led India's independence through nonviolent civil disobedience: Salt March, Quit India Movement.
Kwame Nkrumah
Led Ghana to independence (1957), championed Pan-Africanism and African unity.
Ho Chi Minh
Led Vietnamese independence from France and later fought US intervention. Combined nationalism with communism.
Frantz Fanon
Martinican-Algerian thinker who argued in The Wretched of the Earth that violence was necessary to overthrow colonialism.

Why Were Some Paths Violent?

1
Large settler populations: European settlers (e.g., Algeria, Kenya, South Africa) resisted decolonization because independence threatened their land and privileges.
2
Strategic or economic value: Colonies with oil, minerals, or military bases (e.g., Congo, Vietnam) were harder to relinquish.
3
Colonial ideology: France's "assimilation" policy treated Algeria as part of France itself, making peaceful transfer nearly impossible.
4
Cold War stakes: Superpowers armed both sides, prolonging conflicts and increasing casualties.

How to Analyze Decolonization on the AP Exam

1
Identify the colonial power: Britain, France, Portugal, Belgium, or the Netherlands? Each had different policies and responses.
2
Classify the method: Was independence achieved through negotiation, nonviolent resistance, armed struggle, or a combination?
3
Identify causes: What mix of nationalism, global wars, Cold War dynamics, and international pressure drove independence?
4
Analyze consequences: What challenges did the new nation face? Borders, economy, ethnic conflict, neocolonialism?
5
Make comparisons: Connect to other decolonization cases, the Cold War, or earlier independence movements (Latin America, 1800s).

Common Mistakes

✕ "All decolonization was peaceful"
Many students overemphasize Gandhi's nonviolence and forget violent struggles like Algeria, Kenya (Mau Mau), and Vietnam.
✕ "Independence solved everything"
Political independence did not end economic exploitation. Neocolonialism, debt, and Cold War interference created new problems.
✕ "Colonizers just left willingly"
Decolonization was driven by sustained resistance from colonized peoples, not by the goodwill of imperial powers.

Comparing Decolonization Cases

Region Key Nation Method Year Key Challenge
South Asia India Nonviolent 1947 Partition violence
Southeast Asia Vietnam Armed 1954 Continued war (US)
West Africa Ghana Negotiated 1957 Economic dependency
North Africa Algeria Armed 1962 Settler displacement
Central Africa Congo Mixed 1960 Cold War proxy conflict
Southern Africa South Africa Negotiated 1994 Apartheid legacy

Question 1 of 5

Which of the following best explains why the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) was more violent than India's path to independence?

Question 2 of 5

The Bandung Conference (1955) was most significant because it:

Question 3 of 5

Nkrumah's argument in this passage most directly reflects which post-independence challenge?

Question 4 of 5

Which of the following was a direct consequence of the partition of British India in 1947?

Question 5 of 5

The Non-Aligned Movement (1961) was created primarily in response to which global dynamic?