Resistance to Globalization After 1900 - AP World History

SECTION 1

Historical Context & Motivation

The twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented acceleration of globalization—the intensification of worldwide economic, political, cultural, and ecological interconnections. Trade volumes surged, multinational corporations expanded across borders, international institutions like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization established new norms, and communication technologies compressed the experience of distance. Yet at every stage, globalization provoked resistance from groups who perceived it as a threat to sovereignty, economic livelihood, cultural identity, or environmental sustainability. Understanding these countervailing forces is essential to grasping the full complexity of modern world history.

Resistance to globalization did not emerge in a vacuum; it drew on deep historical currents. Anti-imperial nationalism in Asia and Africa, protectionist economic thought in Latin America, socialist critiques of capitalism in Europe, and indigenous movements worldwide all predated the contemporary anti-globalization movement. Each wave of global integration—from the colonial trading empires of the early 1900s through the Bretton Woods system after 1945 to the neoliberal consensus of the 1990s—generated its own distinctive forms of pushback, ranging from armed revolution to street protests to trade barriers.

1930s • Economic Nationalism & the Great Depression

States worldwide imposed tariffs and capital controls (e.g., the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930), retreating from the open trade system of the late nineteenth century and championing import substitution industrialization (ISI) in Latin America.

1947–1970s • Decolonization & Third World Solidarity

Newly independent nations in Asia and Africa sought economic self-determination, forming blocs like the Non-Aligned Movement (1961) and calling for a New International Economic Order at the UN.

1994 • Zapatista Uprising in Mexico

Indigenous Maya communities in Chiapas rose against NAFTA on the day it took effect, arguing the agreement threatened peasant agriculture and indigenous land rights—becoming a symbol of grassroots resistance to neoliberal free trade.

1999 • Battle of Seattle

Tens of thousands of labor unionists, environmentalists, and human-rights activists disrupted the WTO ministerial conference in Seattle, placing the anti-globalization movement on the global stage.

2016–present • Populist Nationalism Resurges

Events like Brexit and the rise of economic nationalism in major powers reflected widespread discontent with free-trade agreements, immigration, and supranational governance structures.

This historical arc raises a fundamental question for AP World History students: Why has globalization, despite its demonstrable capacity to increase aggregate wealth and connectivity, consistently generated powerful opposition? The answer lies in the uneven distribution of globalization's costs and benefits—across nations, classes, genders, and ethnic groups—and in the deep human attachments to cultural identity, local autonomy, and economic security that global integration can threaten.

SECTION 2

Core Principles of Anti-Globalization Resistance

Resistance to globalization is not monolithic; it encompasses a wide spectrum of ideologies, actors, and strategies. Nevertheless, several recurring principles have animated anti-globalization movements throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, whether they emerged in the global North or South, from the political left or right. Identifying these core themes allows us to draw meaningful comparisons across time periods and regions—a skill central to the AP World History exam's emphasis on continuity and change over time.

Economic Sovereignty

States and communities resist globalization when they perceive that free trade, foreign investment, or international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank undermine their ability to control domestic economic policy—tariff rates, subsidies, labor standards, or currency management.

Cultural Preservation

Globalization spreads dominant cultural forms—Hollywood films, fast-food chains, the English language—prompting movements to protect local languages, religious practices, artistic traditions, and social norms against cultural homogenization.

Environmental Justice

Opponents argue that globalized supply chains externalize environmental costs onto developing nations, accelerate resource extraction, and subordinate ecological sustainability to profit. Movements like Chipko in India exemplify grassroots ecological resistance.

Labor & Inequality

Trade unions and workers' movements resist globalization when capital mobility allows corporations to relocate production to low-wage regions, eroding labor protections and widening the gap between winners and losers of integration.

Political Sovereignty & Nationalism

Both left-wing and right-wing populists challenge supranational governance (EU, WTO, UN), arguing that elected governments should not cede decision-making authority to unelected international bodies or be constrained by trade agreements.

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KEY TAKEAWAY

Think of globalization as a high-speed train linking distant cities. While many passengers benefit from faster travel, communities along the route may suffer noise, pollution, and displacement—and those who cannot afford a ticket are left further behind. Resistance to globalization is, at its core, a set of demands to reroute, slow down, or redesign the train so that its benefits are shared more equitably and its costs are not borne disproportionately by the vulnerable.

SECTION 3

Visual Explanation — The Spectrum of Resistance

This diagram situates resistance movements along a spectrum from total rejection (autarky) on the left to reformist engagement on the right, with key regional actors shown below. Note that movements can shift position over time—China, for example, moved from near-total autarky under Mao to selective protection and now partial integration.

The spectrum model above underscores a critical analytical point: resistance to globalization is not simply a binary of acceptance versus rejection. Most historical actors occupy intermediate positions, selectively engaging with global markets while erecting barriers in specific sectors. India's post-independence License Raj system, for instance, imposed heavy bureaucratic controls on imports while still participating in international diplomacy and receiving foreign aid. Similarly, France has championed European integration while fiercely protecting its domestic film and agricultural industries through quotas and subsidies—a form of selective protection within a broadly globalized framework.

SECTION 4

Mechanisms of Resistance — How States and Movements Push Back

Resistance to globalization operates through multiple channels—economic, political, cultural, and social. Understanding the specific mechanisms by which actors resist global integration is crucial for AP exam analysis, because the College Board frequently asks students to evaluate not just what happened but how and why specific strategies were deployed. This section categorizes the principal mechanisms of resistance and traces their operation through historical case studies.

Economic Mechanisms

The most direct form of resistance is economic protectionism. Tariffs—taxes on imported goods—raise the price of foreign products, shielding domestic industries from competition. Import substitution industrialization (ISI), pursued aggressively by Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico from the 1930s through the 1970s, combined high tariffs with state subsidies to develop domestic manufacturing capacity. Capital controls restrict the flow of money across borders; Malaysia famously imposed capital controls during the 1997 Asian financial crisis to prevent speculative capital flight. Nationalization of foreign-owned enterprises—such as Iran's nationalization of its oil industry under Mosaddegh in 1953 or Bolivia's nationalization of natural gas under Evo Morales in 2006—represents an extreme assertion of economic sovereignty against global capital.

Political & Institutional Mechanisms

Political resistance ranges from diplomatic negotiation to outright withdrawal from international agreements. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), established at the 1961 Belgrade Conference, represented an attempt by newly independent states to resist incorporation into either Cold War bloc's sphere of economic influence. More recently, populist governments have withdrawn from or renegotiated trade agreements: the United Kingdom's 2016 Brexit referendum rejected continued membership in the European Union, and the United States renegotiated NAFTA as the USMCA in 2018–2020. At the grassroots level, social movements organize protests, boycotts, and civil disobedience to pressure governments into rejecting globalization agreements.

Cultural & Ideological Mechanisms

Cultural resistance takes forms ranging from language preservation policies (France's Toubon Law of 1994 mandating French in advertising) to religious revivalism movements that reject Western secular modernity. Gandhi's Swadeshi movement in India combined economic and cultural resistance by urging Indians to spin their own cloth (khadi) rather than buy British-manufactured textiles, transforming a personal consumer choice into a powerful anti-colonial political statement. In the late twentieth century, religious fundamentalist movements in multiple traditions—including the Iranian Revolution of 1979—framed globalization as a vehicle for Western cultural imperialism and offered alternative visions of social order rooted in sacred texts and traditions.

This flowchart illustrates how the causes of anti-globalization sentiment generate economic, political, and cultural strategies that produce outcomes which feed back into the cycle. Note the feedback loop (dashed line): outcomes often reshape the conditions that produced resistance in the first place.

SECTION 5

Case Studies in Resistance

Examining specific case studies allows us to move from abstract principles to concrete historical evidence—the foundation of strong AP World History analysis. The following table organizes key resistance movements by time period, region, type of resistance, and outcome, providing a comparative framework that is especially useful for document-based and long essay questions.

Movement / Policy	Region & Period	Type of Resistance	Key Outcome
Gandhi's Swadeshi / Non-Cooperation	South Asia, 1920s–1940s	Cultural & economic (boycotts, homespun cloth)	Contributed to Indian independence (1947); demonstrated power of consumer-based resistance
ISI in Latin America	Latin America, 1930s–1970s	Economic (tariffs, state industry, subsidies)	Short-term industrial growth; long-term debt crises and eventual shift to neoliberalism in the 1980s–90s
Iranian Revolution	Middle East, 1979	Cultural, political, & religious (theocratic state)	Replaced Western-aligned monarchy with Islamic Republic; reshaped geopolitics of the Persian Gulf
Zapatista Uprising (EZLN)	Mexico (Chiapas), 1994–present	Armed revolt, then advocacy (indigenous rights, anti-NAFTA)	Autonomous indigenous communities established; became global symbol of grassroots resistance to free trade
WTO Protests (Seattle, 1999)	Global / USA, 1999	Political & social (mass protest, civil disobedience)	Disrupted WTO talks; galvanized global anti-globalization coalition of labor, environmental, and human rights groups
Brexit	United Kingdom, 2016–2020	Political nationalism (referendum, withdrawal)	UK left the EU; raised questions about viability of supranational economic integration in democratic societies

Comparative Case Studies in Anti-Globalization Resistance

Several patterns emerge from this comparative analysis. First, resistance often arises at moments of rapid economic dislocation—when new trade agreements, financial crises, or structural adjustment programs abruptly alter economic conditions. Second, cultural and religious identity frequently serves as the mobilizing framework even when underlying grievances are economic: Gandhi framed the boycott of British cloth in terms of Indian self-respect, not merely market share. Third, the outcomes of resistance are highly variable—ranging from successful independence movements to failed economic experiments—suggesting that the effectiveness of anti-globalization strategies depends on broader structural conditions, including state capacity, international alliances, and the nature of the global economy at the time.

SECTION 6

Worked Example — Analyzing a Document on Resistance

The AP World History exam frequently requires students to analyze primary sources related to globalization and its opponents. Below is a step-by-step model for analyzing a hypothetical excerpt from the Zapatista declaration of January 1, 1994, which coincided with NAFTA's implementation.

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DOCUMENT EXCERPT

"We are a product of 500 years of struggle... They don't care that we have nothing, absolutely nothing, not even a roof over our heads; no land, no work, no health care, no food, no education... But today, we say ENOUGH IS ENOUGH... We the men and women, full and free, are equal to them. We are making this declaration against those who for years and years have feasted on our poverty." — Adapted from the First Declaration from the Lacandón Jungle, EZLN, January 1, 1994

Document Analysis: Zapatista Declaration (1994)

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Step 1 — Identify the Historical Context

The document was issued on January 1, 1994, the day NAFTA took effect. NAFTA reduced trade barriers between Mexico, the United States, and Canada, but threatened small-scale indigenous farmers in Chiapas who could not compete with subsidized American agricultural products. The reference to '500 years of struggle' invokes the colonial legacy that began with the Spanish conquest in 1519, connecting contemporary economic grievances to a long history of exploitation.

Context: NAFTA implementation + colonial legacy of indigenous marginalization
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Step 2 — Analyze the Author's Purpose & Audience

The EZLN addressed both the Mexican government and the international community. The declaration's language—invoking poverty, landlessness, and the demand for equality—was designed to build sympathy among domestic and global audiences by framing the Zapatistas as defenders of universal human rights, not merely local insurgents. The phrase 'ENOUGH IS ENOUGH' functions as a rallying cry meant to galvanize support for direct action against neoliberal trade policy.

Purpose: Legitimize armed uprising by framing it as a response to systemic injustice
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Step 3 — Connect to Broader Patterns of Resistance

This document exemplifies several key themes in anti-globalization resistance: the link between economic sovereignty and cultural identity (indigenous rights as inseparable from land rights), the use of historical memory to mobilize collective action, and the deployment of media-savvy communication strategies (the Zapatistas were among the first movements to use the internet for global outreach). Comparatively, the Zapatista declaration parallels earlier anti-colonial manifestos like Frantz Fanon's writings, which also framed economic exploitation as inseparable from cultural domination.

Connection: Anti-NAFTA resistance as a modern extension of anti-colonial and anti-imperial resistance traditions
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Step 4 — Evaluate Significance & Limitations

The document is significant because it marks a pivotal moment when resistance to globalization shifted from academic critique to armed insurgency, drawing global media attention and inspiring the broader anti-globalization movement of the late 1990s. However, as a revolutionary manifesto, it presents a deliberately one-sided view and does not acknowledge potential benefits of trade liberalization. A strong analysis would note this limitation and consider counterevidence, such as the macroeconomic growth Mexico experienced under NAFTA, even while acknowledging the distributional inequities the Zapatistas highlighted.

Significance: Catalyst for global anti-globalization movement; Limitation: Inherently partisan perspective

SECTION 7

Strengths and Limitations of Anti-Globalization Strategies

Not all forms of resistance to globalization have been equally effective, and historians debate both the merits and the costs of various strategies. The following table compares the principal approaches across several evaluative criteria, providing a balanced analytical framework that is particularly useful for constructing nuanced AP exam arguments.

Strategy	Strengths	Limitations
Autarky / Total Isolation	Complete protection of domestic industry and cultural autonomy; no dependence on foreign capital	Historically associated with economic stagnation, repression, and technological backwardness (e.g., North Korea, Pol Pot's Cambodia)
Import Substitution Industrialization	Builds domestic manufacturing base; reduces colonial-style dependence on raw material exports	Often produced inefficient industries shielded from competition; contributed to debt crises in Latin America by the 1980s
Mass Protest & Civil Disobedience	Raises global awareness; can disrupt negotiations (Seattle 1999); morally compelling	Difficult to sustain; media attention is fleeting; can be repressed by state force; sometimes lacks clear policy alternatives
Religious / Cultural Revivalism	Powerful mobilizing force; preserves identity and community cohesion; provides alternative value system	Can become exclusionary or authoritarian; may resist beneficial modernization alongside harmful globalization
Reformist Engagement (Fair Trade, World Social Forum)	Works within the system; achieves concrete policy changes; builds broad coalitions	Accused of being co-opted by the very institutions it seeks to reform; incremental pace frustrates radicals

Comparative Analysis of Anti-Globalization Strategies

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KEY TAKEAWAY

On the AP exam, avoid framing resistance to globalization as simply 'good' or 'bad.' The strongest essays acknowledge that every strategy involves trade-offs: ISI protected jobs but bred inefficiency; autarky preserved sovereignty but stunted growth; reformist engagement achieved incremental gains but risked co-optation. Think of it like choosing a medical treatment—no intervention is without side effects, and the optimal choice depends on the patient's specific condition and priorities.

SECTION 8

Connection to Contemporary Debates & Advanced Analysis

Resistance to globalization did not end with the twentieth century; indeed, the twenty-first century has witnessed a powerful resurgence of anti-globalization sentiment, often described under the umbrella of populist nationalism. Understanding this contemporary context is essential not only for the AP exam—which covers events through the present—but for connecting historical patterns to the world students inhabit. The table below contrasts the characteristics of twentieth-century resistance with its twenty-first-century counterpart.

Dimension	20th-Century Resistance	21st-Century Resistance
Primary Actors	Newly independent states, labor unions, socialist/communist movements, peasant organizations	Populist political parties, digital activist networks, right-wing nationalist movements, environmental NGOs
Dominant Ideology	Marxism, dependency theory, Third-Worldism, anti-colonialism	Economic nationalism, anti-immigration sentiment, environmental sustainability, digital sovereignty
Key Targets	Colonial empires, Bretton Woods institutions (IMF/World Bank), multinational corporations	Free-trade agreements (TPP, EU), tech monopolies (Google, Amazon), immigration, supranational governance
Communication	Print media, radio, pamphlets, face-to-face organizing	Social media, viral video, memes, crowdfunding, decentralized networks
Geographic Focus	Primarily Global South (decolonization, ISI)	Increasingly in the Global North (Brexit, Yellow Vests) as well as the Global South

20th vs. 21st Century Anti-Globalization Resistance

A striking feature of twenty-first-century resistance is its ideological heterogeneity. In the twentieth century, anti-globalization movements were largely associated with the political left—labor unions, socialist parties, and anti-colonial nationalists. Today, resistance comes equally from the political right (nativist parties in Europe, economic nationalism in major powers) and the political left (climate activism, the degrowth movement, digital rights advocates). This convergence of left and right populisms against the 'globalist establishment' is a defining—and historically novel—feature of the contemporary era, and it represents fertile ground for AP exam analysis of continuity and change over time.

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AP EXAM TIP

When writing about resistance to globalization, always identify whether the resistance comes from state actors (governments imposing tariffs or withdrawing from treaties) or non-state actors (social movements, NGOs, religious organizations). The AP rubric rewards specificity in identifying the agents of change and their distinct motivations, rather than vague generalizations about 'people opposing globalization.'

SECTION 9

Practice Problems

Question 1: CONCEPTUAL

Which of the following best describes a key difference between import substitution industrialization (ISI) and autarky as strategies of resistance to globalization?

A. ISI sought to build domestic manufacturing capacity while maintaining some trade relationships, whereas autarky aimed for complete economic self-sufficiency.
B. ISI was primarily a cultural movement, whereas autarky was exclusively an economic policy.
C. ISI was practiced only in Asia, whereas autarky was exclusive to European states during the Great Depression.
D. ISI embraced free trade with all nations except former colonial powers, whereas autarky rejected trade only with capitalist nations.

Show answer (A)

A is correct. ISI involved erecting tariff barriers and subsidizing domestic industries to replace imports with locally produced goods, but countries like Brazil and Mexico still engaged in international trade—particularly exporting raw materials. Autarky, by contrast, seeks near-total economic self-sufficiency, as practiced by North Korea's Juche system. B is incorrect because ISI was fundamentally an economic strategy, not a cultural movement. C is incorrect because ISI was most prominently practiced in Latin America, not exclusively Asia, and autarky was practiced globally, not just in Europe. D is incorrect because ISI did not embrace free trade; its core mechanism was protectionist tariffs. Autarky was not limited to rejecting trade with capitalist states—North Korea, for example, has restricted trade with communist and capitalist nations alike.

Question 2: BASIC

The Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico (1994) was most directly a response to which of the following?

A. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of Marxist ideological support for revolutionary movements
B. The implementation of NAFTA and its perceived threat to indigenous land rights and peasant agriculture
C. Mexico's decision to join the European Union as an associate member
D. The IMF's imposition of structural adjustment programs requiring privatization of Mexico's oil industry

Show answer (B)

B is correct. The EZLN launched its uprising on January 1, 1994—the exact date NAFTA took effect—explicitly framing the agreement as a death sentence for indigenous subsistence farmers who could not compete with subsidized American corn imports. A is incorrect because while the Soviet collapse affected global revolutionary movements, the Zapatistas specifically targeted NAFTA and neoliberal trade policy, not the loss of Soviet support. C is incorrect because Mexico never sought EU membership; this is factually inaccurate. D is incorrect because while Mexico did experience structural adjustment pressures, the Zapatista uprising was specifically timed to and targeted at NAFTA, not IMF-mandated oil privatization.

Question 3: INTERMEDIATE

3 pts

a) Identify ONE similarity between Gandhi's Swadeshi movement in India and the Zapatista movement in Mexico as forms of resistance to globalization. b) Identify ONE difference between these two movements in terms of the methods they employed. c) Explain ONE reason why resistance to globalization has persisted from the early twentieth century into the twenty-first century.

Show answer

Point-by-point rubric: Part (a) — 1 point: A strong response identifies a meaningful similarity, such as: both movements linked economic resistance to cultural identity (Gandhi connected boycotts of British cloth to Indian self-determination; the Zapatistas framed opposition to NAFTA as defense of indigenous land and heritage). Other acceptable similarities include: both were led by marginalized populations resisting externally imposed economic systems, and both achieved international attention disproportionate to their local scale. Part (b) — 1 point: A strong response identifies a clear methodological difference. For example: Gandhi's Swadeshi movement relied primarily on nonviolent civil disobedience (boycotts, homespun cloth, peaceful marches), whereas the Zapatistas initially employed armed insurgency before transitioning to media-based advocacy. Other valid differences include scale (mass national movement vs. regional insurgency) and communication technology (print/radio vs. internet). Part (c) — 1 point: A strong response explains a structural reason for the persistence of resistance. For example: globalization has consistently produced uneven distribution of benefits, enriching some groups and regions while displacing or impoverishing others. As long as this asymmetry exists, marginalized communities have economic and political incentives to resist integration. Another valid approach: technological change (automation, digital platforms) creates new forms of displacement that generate new grievances, ensuring resistance adapts to each era's specific manifestation of globalization.

Question 4: APPLIED

4 pts

Using the two documents below, answer the following: Document 1: "The North American Free Trade Agreement will create the world's largest free-trade zone... generating economic growth and raising the standard of living for the people of all three countries." — U.S. President Bill Clinton, NAFTA signing ceremony, 1993 Document 2: "Today we say ENOUGH IS ENOUGH... We are a product of 500 years of struggle... We have nothing, absolutely nothing." — EZLN, First Declaration from the Lacandón Jungle, January 1, 1994 Using the documents and your knowledge of world history, evaluate the extent to which globalization benefited and harmed different populations in the Americas in the late twentieth century.

Show answer

Point-by-point rubric (4 points): Thesis (1 point): The response must present a historically defensible thesis that evaluates the extent to which globalization produced both benefits and harms. A strong thesis might argue: 'While NAFTA generated aggregate economic growth and expanded trade volumes across the Americas, its benefits were concentrated among urban industrial and service-sector workers, while indigenous and rural agricultural communities bore disproportionate costs, illustrating the fundamentally uneven nature of late-twentieth-century globalization.' Document Analysis (1 point): The response must accurately analyze both documents. Document 1 reflects the optimistic, growth-centered perspective of a U.S. president promoting neoliberal trade policy; its purpose is to build political support for ratification. Document 2 reflects the perspective of marginalized indigenous communities who experienced globalization as an extension of centuries of exploitation; its purpose is to justify armed resistance. A strong response notes the contrasting perspectives and considers how the authors' positions shape their arguments. Contextualization (1 point): The response must situate the documents within the broader historical context of late-twentieth-century neoliberal globalization—including the Washington Consensus, structural adjustment programs in Latin America, the end of ISI policies, and the growing gap between elite beneficiaries and marginalized populations. Outside Evidence (1 point): The response must incorporate at least one piece of relevant evidence not found in the documents. Examples include: the 1994 peso crisis that undermined NAFTA's promised benefits, data on Mexican corn farmer displacement, the maquiladora system's effects on border communities, or comparative reference to other trade agreements and their distributional effects.

Question 5: CRITICAL THINKING

4 pts

Evaluate the extent to which resistance to globalization in the period 1900–2000 represented a continuation of earlier anti-imperial movements versus a fundamentally new phenomenon driven by the specific conditions of the twentieth-century global economy.

Show answer

Point-by-point rubric (4 points): Thesis (1 point): The response must present a historically defensible thesis that takes a clear position on the continuity-change question. A strong thesis acknowledges both elements: 'While twentieth-century resistance to globalization inherited anti-imperial frameworks—particularly the language of sovereignty, self-determination, and cultural preservation—it was fundamentally reshaped by new conditions including the Bretton Woods system, multinational corporate power, and the speed of financial globalization, making it both a continuation of and departure from earlier anti-imperial movements.' Contextualization (1 point): The response must situate the argument in the broader context of decolonization, Cold War economic competition, the rise of international financial institutions, and the shift from colonial to neocolonial economic relationships. A strong response might discuss how the formal end of empires did not end economic dependency, creating conditions for new forms of resistance. Evidence (1 point): The response must use specific, relevant evidence to support the argument. Continuity evidence: Gandhi's Swadeshi movement drew on anti-British imperial resistance; the Non-Aligned Movement echoed nineteenth-century demands for sovereignty; dependency theory intellectuals like Raúl Prebisch explicitly critiqued the colonial economic structures that persisted after independence. Change evidence: ISI was a distinctly twentieth-century state-led strategy; the 1999 Seattle protests used the internet and targeted institutions (WTO) that had no nineteenth-century equivalent; the Zapatistas fought against a trade agreement between nominally sovereign states, not against a colonial power. Analysis & Reasoning (1 point): The response must demonstrate complex historical thinking by explaining both continuities and changes and evaluating which was more significant. A strong response argues that while the ideological roots of resistance were continuous, the institutional targets, strategies, and scale of resistance were fundamentally transformed by the twentieth century's unique economic structures. The essay should explicitly compare at least two movements across time periods to substantiate this analysis.

SUMMARY

Summary — Resistance to Globalization After 1900

Summary

Resistance to globalization after 1900 has taken many forms, ranging from complete autarky to reformist engagement. Key drivers include threats to economic sovereignty, cultural identity, environmental sustainability, and labor rights. Major case studies include Gandhi's Swadeshi movement, ISI in Latin America, the Iranian Revolution, the Zapatista uprising, the 1999 Seattle WTO protests, and Brexit.

Resistance operates through economic mechanisms (tariffs, ISI, capital controls, nationalization), political mechanisms (treaty withdrawal, mass protest, referenda), and cultural mechanisms (language laws, religious revivalism, consumer boycotts). In the twenty-first century, resistance has become ideologically heterogeneous, driven by both right-wing populist nationalism and left-wing environmental and labor activism. For the AP exam, remember to identify specific actors, mechanisms, and outcomes rather than making vague generalizations, and always consider the trade-offs inherent in any strategy of resistance.